what is a citation when writing an essay

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When starting your first research work, you will find that citations play one of the central roles in building originality, credibility, and respect for both your work and intellectual property in general. Understanding what a citation is and how to use it effectively is fundamental for anyone engaging in scholarly writing.

Definition of a Citation

A citation is a formal reference to a source from which information or ideas have been drawn. I t is a way to credit the original author and to provide the readers with the necessary information to find the source themselves. Citations are vital in academic writing as they lend support and credibility to the writer’s own ideas and arguments, and they can be created via a free citation generator .

The Role of Citations in Scholarly Work

Creating citations is an inseparable part of academic writing, primarily serving as a guard against the unethical practice of plagiarizing. Plagiarism is the act of using another person’s work or ideas without giving them due credit, and it is considered a serious offense in the academic world. Citing sources demonstrates that writers respect the original author’s intellectual property and acknowledge their contribution to the field.

Moreover, citations illustrate that the writer has engaged in extensive research, adding depth and credibility to their work. They act as a roadmap, allowing readers to follow the trail of research and thought processes that led to the conclusions drawn in the paper. This transparency contributes to the audience’s understanding and allows them to verify the data and ideas presented, making sure the integrity and reliability of the scholarly discourse. Therefore, citations are essential to maintaining the honesty and trustworthiness of academic communication.

Types of Citations

Understanding the different types of citations is key to crafting well-researched and credible work. Each citation style, whether it’s APA, MLA, or Chicago, serves a specific purpose and follows distinct guidelines that build clarity and uniformity in academic communication. From in-text citations that subtly acknowledge sources within your narrative, to detailed bibliographies that offer a comprehensive overview of your research, mastering these various forms enhances the integrity and impact of your writing.

In-text Citations

In-text citations are integral to most academic writing formats. An example of an in-text citation in APA style is:

> (Smith, 2020).

This format briefly acknowledges the source within the text, typically featuring the author’s last name and the publication year. The purpose of in-text citations is to point the reader towards the more detailed reference list entry, allowing them to easily locate the full source details without cluttering the main text with extensive information.

Reference List Citations

Reference list citations are found at the end of an academic paper and provide comprehensive details about each source. For instance, a typical APA reference list entry might look like:

> Smith, J. (2020). Title of the Work . Publisher.

This format includes the author’s name, publication year, title of the work, and publisher details. The reference list ensures that every source mentioned in the in-text citations is accounted for, with sufficient information for the reader to find the original work.

Footnotes and Endnotes

Footnotes and endnotes serve as supplemental tools for citations or additional comments. An example of a footnote in Chicago style might appear as a superscript number within the text, with the corresponding note at the bottom of the page:

> ¹Smith, Title of the Work , 45.

Footnotes are found at the bottom of the page where the reference is made, while endnotes appear collectively at the end of the chapter or document. They can include full citation details or additional insights related to the content, providing further depth and context to the main text.

Citation Styles and Formats

Common Issues and Mistakes in Citation

In the world of academic writing, navigating the intricacies of citation can often be challenging, and it’s all too easy to stumble into common pitfalls. Incorrect citation format is a frequent error, where writers might mix up the requirements of different citation styles, such as confusing APA with MLA. This can lead to confusion and misinterpretation of the source material. Another common issue is missing information in citations, like omitting the publication date or the publisher’s name. This lack of detail can make it difficult for readers to locate the original sources, thereby affecting the paper’s reliability.

Inconsistency in citation styles throughout a document is another area where writers often err. For instance, using APA style in one section and then inadvertently switching to Chicago style in another can create a disjointed reading experience. Such inconsistencies not only disrupt the flow of your writing but also question its scholarly rigor . To maintain the integrity and credibility of your work, it is crucial to be thorough and consistent in your citation practices, carefully adhering to the rules of the chosen citation style. Remember, in the realm of academic writing, precision, and attention to detail in citations are as important as the content itself.

Citations are more than just formalities. They are a testament to a writer’s integrity, attention to detail, and engagement with the scholarly community. Proper citation practices honor the originality of ideas while building a reliable and verifiable body of knowledge. As such, mastering the art of citation is a key skill in academic writing.

What information should be included in a citation?

A citation should typically include the author’s name, the title of the work, publication date, and other relevant details like the publisher’s name, journal title, volume and issue numbers, and page numbers. For digital sources, URLs or DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) are also essential.

Can I use online citation generators?

Yes, online citation generators can be used and are quite helpful in automating the citation process. However, it’s important to double-check the generated citations for accuracy, as these tools can sometimes make errors or be outdated in terms of citation style guidelines.

What are the consequences of not citing sources?

Not citing sources can lead to accusations of plagiarism, which is a serious academic offense. It can result in various consequences ranging from loss of credibility and academic penalties to legal repercussions. Proper citation is essential to maintain the integrity and reliability of your work.

Is there a difference between citing books and websites?

Yes, there is a difference in citing books and websites. Book citations typically require the author’s name, book title, publisher, and publication year. Website citations, however, often include the author’s name, title of the web page or article, the name of the website, the publication date, and the URL or DOI.

When do I need to use in-text citations?

In-text citations are used whenever you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source in the body of your text. These citations provide a brief acknowledgment of the source, typically including the author’s last name and publication year, which correspond to a more detailed entry in the reference list or bibliography.

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APA In-Text Citations and Sample Essay 7th Edition

This handout focuses on how to format in-text citations in APA.

Proper citation of sources is a two-part process . You must first cite each source in the body of your essay; these citations within the essay are called in-text citations . You MUST cite all quoted, paraphrased, or summarized words, ideas, and facts from sources. Without in-text citations, you are technically in danger of plagiarism, even if you have listed your sources at the end of the essay.

In-text citations point the reader to the sources’ information on the references page. The in-text citation typically includes the author's last name and the year of publication. If you use a direct quote, the page number is also provided.

More information can be found on p. 253 of the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

Citation Rules

Direct quotation with the author named in the text.

Heinze and Lu (2017) stated, “The NFL shifted its responses to institutional change around concussions significantly as the field itself evolved” (p. 509).

Note: The year of publication is listed in parenthesis after the names of the authors, and the page number is listed in parenthesis at the end of the quote.

Direct Quotation without the Author Named in the Text

As the NFL developed as an organization, it “shifted its responses to institutional change around concussions significantly” (Heinze & Lu, 2017, p. 509).

Note: At the end of the quote, the names of the authors, year of publication, and page number are listed in parenthesis.

Paraphrase with 1-2 Authors

As the NFL developed as an organization, its reactions toward concussions also transformed (Heinze & Lu, 2017).

Note: For paraphrases, page numbers are encouraged but not required.

Paraphrase with 3 or More Authors

To work toward solving the issue of violence in prisons begins with determining aspects that might connect with prisoners' violent conduct (Thomson et al., 2019).

Direct Quotation without an Author

The findings were astonishing "in a recent study of parent and adult child relationships" ("Parents and Their Children," 2007, p. 2).

Note: Since the author of the text is not stated, a shortened version of the title is used instead.

Secondary Sources

When using secondary sources, use the phrase "as cited in" and cite the secondary source on the References page.

In 1936, Keynes said, “governments should run deficits when the economy is slow to avoid unemployment” (as cited in Richardson, 2008, p. 257).

Long (Block) Quotations

When using direct quotations of 40 or more words, indent five spaces from the left margin without using quotation marks. The final period should come before the parenthetical citation.

At Meramec, an English department policy states:

To honor and protect their own work and that of others, all students must give credit to proprietary sources that are used for course work. It is assumed that any information that is not documented is either common knowledge in that field or the original work of that student. (St. Louis Community College, 2001, p. 1)

Website Citations

If citing a specific web document without a page number, include the name of the author, date, title of the section, and paragraph number in parentheses:

In America, “Two out of five deaths among U.S. teens are the result of a motor vehicle crash” (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2004, Overview section, para. 1).

Here is a print-friendly version of this content.

Learn more about the APA References page by reviewing this handout .

For information on STLCC's academic integrity policy, check out this webpage .

For additional information on APA, check out STLCC's LibGuide on APA .

Sample Essay

A sample APA essay is available at this link .

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

MLA In-Text Citations: The Basics

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Guidelines for referring to the works of others in your text using MLA style are covered throughout the  MLA Handbook  and in chapter 7 of the  MLA Style Manual . Both books provide extensive examples, so it's a good idea to consult them if you want to become even more familiar with MLA guidelines or if you have a particular reference question.

Basic in-text citation rules

In MLA Style, referring to the works of others in your text is done using parenthetical citations . This method involves providing relevant source information in parentheses whenever a sentence uses a quotation or paraphrase. Usually, the simplest way to do this is to put all of the source information in parentheses at the end of the sentence (i.e., just before the period). However, as the examples below will illustrate, there are situations where it makes sense to put the parenthetical elsewhere in the sentence, or even to leave information out.

General Guidelines

• The source information required in a parenthetical citation depends (1) upon the source medium (e.g. print, web, DVD) and (2) upon the source’s entry on the Works Cited page.
• Any source information that you provide in-text must correspond to the source information on the Works Cited page. More specifically, whatever signal word or phrase you provide to your readers in the text must be the first thing that appears on the left-hand margin of the corresponding entry on the Works Cited page.

In-text citations: Author-page style

MLA format follows the author-page method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear on your Works Cited page. The author's name may appear either in the sentence itself or in parentheses following the quotation or paraphrase, but the page number(s) should always appear in the parentheses, not in the text of your sentence. For example:

Both citations in the examples above, (263) and (Wordsworth 263), tell readers that the information in the sentence can be located on page 263 of a work by an author named Wordsworth. If readers want more information about this source, they can turn to the Works Cited page, where, under the name of Wordsworth, they would find the following information:

Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads . Oxford UP, 1967.

In-text citations for print sources with known author

For print sources like books, magazines, scholarly journal articles, and newspapers, provide a signal word or phrase (usually the author’s last name) and a page number. If you provide the signal word/phrase in the sentence, you do not need to include it in the parenthetical citation.

These examples must correspond to an entry that begins with Burke, which will be the first thing that appears on the left-hand margin of an entry on the Works Cited page:

Burke, Kenneth. Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method . University of California Press, 1966.

In-text citations for print sources by a corporate author

When a source has a corporate author, it is acceptable to use the name of the corporation followed by the page number for the in-text citation. You should also use abbreviations (e.g., nat'l for national) where appropriate, so as to avoid interrupting the flow of reading with overly long parenthetical citations.

In-text citations for sources with non-standard labeling systems

If a source uses a labeling or numbering system other than page numbers, such as a script or poetry, precede the citation with said label. When citing a poem, for instance, the parenthetical would begin with the word “line”, and then the line number or range. For example, the examination of William Blake’s poem “The Tyger” would be cited as such:

The speaker makes an ardent call for the exploration of the connection between the violence of nature and the divinity of creation. “In what distant deeps or skies. / Burnt the fire of thine eyes," they ask in reference to the tiger as they attempt to reconcile their intimidation with their relationship to creationism (lines 5-6).

Longer labels, such as chapters (ch.) and scenes (sc.), should be abbreviated.

In-text citations for print sources with no known author

When a source has no known author, use a shortened title of the work instead of an author name, following these guidelines.

Place the title in quotation marks if it's a short work (such as an article) or italicize it if it's a longer work (e.g. plays, books, television shows, entire Web sites) and provide a page number if it is available.

Titles longer than a standard noun phrase should be shortened into a noun phrase by excluding articles. For example, To the Lighthouse would be shortened to Lighthouse .

If the title cannot be easily shortened into a noun phrase, the title should be cut after the first clause, phrase, or punctuation:

In this example, since the reader does not know the author of the article, an abbreviated title appears in the parenthetical citation, and the full title of the article appears first at the left-hand margin of its respective entry on the Works Cited page. Thus, the writer includes the title in quotation marks as the signal phrase in the parenthetical citation in order to lead the reader directly to the source on the Works Cited page. The Works Cited entry appears as follows:

"The Impact of Global Warming in North America." Global Warming: Early Signs . 1999. www.climatehotmap.org/. Accessed 23 Mar. 2009.

If the title of the work begins with a quotation mark, such as a title that refers to another work, that quote or quoted title can be used as the shortened title. The single quotation marks must be included in the parenthetical, rather than the double quotation.

Parenthetical citations and Works Cited pages, used in conjunction, allow readers to know which sources you consulted in writing your essay, so that they can either verify your interpretation of the sources or use them in their own scholarly work.

Author-page citation for classic and literary works with multiple editions

Page numbers are always required, but additional citation information can help literary scholars, who may have a different edition of a classic work, like Marx and Engels's  The Communist Manifesto . In such cases, give the page number of your edition (making sure the edition is listed in your Works Cited page, of course) followed by a semicolon, and then the appropriate abbreviations for volume (vol.), book (bk.), part (pt.), chapter (ch.), section (sec.), or paragraph (par.). For example:

Author-page citation for works in an anthology, periodical, or collection

When you cite a work that appears inside a larger source (for instance, an article in a periodical or an essay in a collection), cite the author of the  internal source (i.e., the article or essay). For example, to cite Albert Einstein's article "A Brief Outline of the Theory of Relativity," which was published in  Nature  in 1921, you might write something like this:

See also our page on documenting periodicals in the Works Cited .

Citing authors with same last names

Sometimes more information is necessary to identify the source from which a quotation is taken. For instance, if two or more authors have the same last name, provide both authors' first initials (or even the authors' full name if different authors share initials) in your citation. For example:

Citing a work by multiple authors

For a source with two authors, list the authors’ last names in the text or in the parenthetical citation:

Corresponding Works Cited entry:

Best, David, and Sharon Marcus. “Surface Reading: An Introduction.” Representations , vol. 108, no. 1, Fall 2009, pp. 1-21. JSTOR, doi:10.1525/rep.2009.108.1.1

For a source with three or more authors, list only the first author’s last name, and replace the additional names with et al.

Franck, Caroline, et al. “Agricultural Subsidies and the American Obesity Epidemic.” American Journal of Preventative Medicine , vol. 45, no. 3, Sept. 2013, pp. 327-333.

Citing multiple works by the same author

If you cite more than one work by an author, include a shortened title for the particular work from which you are quoting to distinguish it from the others. Put short titles of books in italics and short titles of articles in quotation marks.

Citing two articles by the same author :

Citing two books by the same author :

Additionally, if the author's name is not mentioned in the sentence, format your citation with the author's name followed by a comma, followed by a shortened title of the work, and, when appropriate, the page number(s):

Citing multivolume works

If you cite from different volumes of a multivolume work, always include the volume number followed by a colon. Put a space after the colon, then provide the page number(s). (If you only cite from one volume, provide only the page number in parentheses.)

Citing the Bible

In your first parenthetical citation, you want to make clear which Bible you're using (and underline or italicize the title), as each version varies in its translation, followed by book (do not italicize or underline), chapter, and verse. For example:

If future references employ the same edition of the Bible you’re using, list only the book, chapter, and verse in the parenthetical citation:

John of Patmos echoes this passage when describing his vision (Rev. 4.6-8).

Citing indirect sources

Sometimes you may have to use an indirect source. An indirect source is a source cited within another source. For such indirect quotations, use "qtd. in" to indicate the source you actually consulted. For example:

Note that, in most cases, a responsible researcher will attempt to find the original source, rather than citing an indirect source.

Citing transcripts, plays, or screenplays

Sources that take the form of a dialogue involving two or more participants have special guidelines for their quotation and citation. Each line of dialogue should begin with the speaker's name written in all capitals and indented half an inch. A period follows the name (e.g., JAMES.) . After the period, write the dialogue. Each successive line after the first should receive an additional indentation. When another person begins speaking, start a new line with that person's name indented only half an inch. Repeat this pattern each time the speaker changes. You can include stage directions in the quote if they appear in the original source.

Conclude with a parenthetical that explains where to find the excerpt in the source. Usually, the author and title of the source can be given in a signal phrase before quoting the excerpt, so the concluding parenthetical will often just contain location information like page numbers or act/scene indicators.

Here is an example from O'Neill's  The Iceman Cometh.

WILLIE. (Pleadingly) Give me a drink, Rocky. Harry said it was all right. God, I need a drink.

ROCKY. Den grab it. It's right under your nose.

WILLIE. (Avidly) Thanks. (He takes the bottle with both twitching hands and tilts it to his lips and gulps down the whiskey in big swallows.) (1.1)

Citing non-print or sources from the Internet

With more and more scholarly work published on the Internet, you may have to cite sources you found in digital environments. While many sources on the Internet should not be used for scholarly work (reference the OWL's  Evaluating Sources of Information  resource), some Web sources are perfectly acceptable for research. When creating in-text citations for electronic, film, or Internet sources, remember that your citation must reference the source on your Works Cited page.

Sometimes writers are confused with how to craft parenthetical citations for electronic sources because of the absence of page numbers. However, these sorts of entries often do not require a page number in the parenthetical citation. For electronic and Internet sources, follow the following guidelines:

• Include in the text the first item that appears in the Work Cited entry that corresponds to the citation (e.g. author name, article name, website name, film name).
• Do not provide paragraph numbers or page numbers based on your Web browser’s print preview function.
• Unless you must list the Web site name in the signal phrase in order to get the reader to the appropriate entry, do not include URLs in-text. Only provide partial URLs such as when the name of the site includes, for example, a domain name, like  CNN.com  or  Forbes.com,  as opposed to writing out http://www.cnn.com or http://www.forbes.com.

Miscellaneous non-print sources

Two types of non-print sources you may encounter are films and lectures/presentations:

In the two examples above “Herzog” (a film’s director) and “Yates” (a presentor) lead the reader to the first item in each citation’s respective entry on the Works Cited page:

Herzog, Werner, dir. Fitzcarraldo . Perf. Klaus Kinski. Filmverlag der Autoren, 1982.

Yates, Jane. "Invention in Rhetoric and Composition." Gaps Addressed: Future Work in Rhetoric and Composition, CCCC, Palmer House Hilton, 2002. Address.

Electronic sources

Electronic sources may include web pages and online news or magazine articles:

In the first example (an online magazine article), the writer has chosen not to include the author name in-text; however, two entries from the same author appear in the Works Cited. Thus, the writer includes both the author’s last name and the article title in the parenthetical citation in order to lead the reader to the appropriate entry on the Works Cited page (see below).

In the second example (a web page), a parenthetical citation is not necessary because the page does not list an author, and the title of the article, “MLA Formatting and Style Guide,” is used as a signal phrase within the sentence. If the title of the article was not named in the sentence, an abbreviated version would appear in a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence. Both corresponding Works Cited entries are as follows:

Taylor, Rumsey. "Fitzcarraldo." Slant , 13 Jun. 2003, www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/fitzcarraldo/. Accessed 29 Sep. 2009. 

"MLA Formatting and Style Guide." The Purdue OWL , 2 Aug. 2016, owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/. Accessed 2 April 2018.

Multiple citations

To cite multiple sources in the same parenthetical reference, separate the citations by a semi-colon:

Time-based media sources

When creating in-text citations for media that has a runtime, such as a movie or podcast, include the range of hours, minutes and seconds you plan to reference. For example: (00:02:15-00:02:35).

When a citation is not needed

Common sense and ethics should determine your need for documenting sources. You do not need to give sources for familiar proverbs, well-known quotations, or common knowledge (For example, it is expected that U.S. citizens know that George Washington was the first President.). Remember that citing sources is a rhetorical task, and, as such, can vary based on your audience. If you’re writing for an expert audience of a scholarly journal, for example, you may need to deal with expectations of what constitutes “common knowledge” that differ from common norms.

Other Sources

The MLA Handbook describes how to cite many different kinds of authors and content creators. However, you may occasionally encounter a source or author category that the handbook does not describe, making the best way to proceed can be unclear.

In these cases, it's typically acceptable to apply the general principles of MLA citation to the new kind of source in a way that's consistent and sensible. A good way to do this is to simply use the standard MLA directions for a type of source that resembles the source you want to cite.

You may also want to investigate whether a third-party organization has provided directions for how to cite this kind of source. For example, Norquest College provides guidelines for citing Indigenous Elders and Knowledge Keepers⁠ —an author category that does not appear in the MLA Handbook . In cases like this, however, it's a good idea to ask your instructor or supervisor whether using third-party citation guidelines might present problems.

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / MLA Format / How to Cite an Essay in MLA

How to Cite an Essay in MLA

The guidelines for citing an essay in MLA format are similar to those for citing a chapter in a book. Include the author of the essay, the title of the essay, the name of the collection if the essay belongs to one, the editor of the collection or other contributors, the publication information, and the page number(s).

Citing an Essay

Mla essay citation structure.

Last, First M. “Essay Title.” Collection Title, edited by First M. Last, Publisher, year published, page numbers. Website Title , URL (if applicable).

MLA Essay Citation Example

Gupta, Sanjay. “Balancing and Checking.” Essays on Modern Democracy, edited by Bob Towsky, Brook Stone Publishers, 1996, pp. 36-48. Essay Database, www . databaseforessays.org/modern/modern-democracy.

MLA Essay In-text Citation Structure

(Last Name Page #)

MLA Essay In-text Citation Example

Click here to cite an essay via an EasyBib citation form.

MLA Formatting Guide

MLA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Sample Paper
• Works Cited
• MLA 8 Updates
• MLA 9 Updates
• View MLA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all MLA Examples

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To cite your sources in an essay in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the author’s name(s), chapter title, book title, editor(s), publication year, publisher, and page numbers. The templates for in-text citations and a works-cited-list entry for essay sources and some examples are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the author on the first occurrence. For subsequent citations, use only the surname(s). In parenthetical citations, always use only the surname of the author(s).

Citation in prose:

First mention: Annette Wheeler Cafarelli

Subsequent occurrences: Wheeler Cafarelli

Parenthetical:

….(Wheeler Cafarelli).

Works-cited-list entry template and example:

The title of the chapter is enclosed in double quotation marks and uses title case. The book or collection title is given in italics and uses title case.

Surname, First Name. “Title of the Chapter.” Title of the Book , edited by Editor(s) Name, Publisher, Publication Year, page range.

Cafarelli, Annette Wheeler. “Rousseau and British Romanticism: Women and British Romanticism.” Cultural Interactions in the Romantic Age: Critical Essays in Comparative Literature , edited by Gregory Maertz. State U of New York P, 1998, pp. 125–56.

To cite an essay in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the author(s), the essay title, the book title, editor(s), publication year, publisher, and page numbers. The templates for citations in prose, parenthetical citations, and works-cited-list entries for an essay by multiple authors, and some examples, are given below:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the author (e.g., Mary Strine).

For sources with two authors, use both full author names in prose (e.g., Mary Strine and Beth Radick).

For sources with three or more authors, use the first name and surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues” (e.g., Mary Strine and others). In subsequent citations, use only the surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues” (e.g., Strine and others).

In parenthetical citations, use only the author’s surname. For sources with two authors, use two surnames (e.g., Strine and Radick). For sources with three or more author names, use the first author’s surname followed by “et al.”

First mention: Mary Strine…

Subsequent mention: Strine…

First mention: Mary Strine and Beth Radick…

Subsequent mention: Strine and Radick…

First mention: Mary Strine and colleagues …. or Mary Strine and others

Subsequent occurrences: Strine and colleagues …. or Strine and others

…. (Strine).

….(Strine and Radick).

….(Strine et al.).

The title of the essay is enclosed in double quotation marks and uses title case. The book or collection title is given in italics and uses title case.

Surname, First Name, et al. “Title of the Essay.” Title of the Book , edited by Editor(s) Name, Publisher, Publication Year, page range.

Strine, Mary M., et al. “Research in Interpretation and Performance Studies: Trends, Issues, Priorities.” Speech Communication: Essays to Commemorate the 75th Anniversary of the Speech Communication Association , edited by Gerald M. Phillips and Julia T. Wood, Southern Illinois UP, 1990, pp. 181–204.

MLA Citation Examples

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Basic Principles of Citation

APA Style uses the author–date citation system , in which a brief in-text citation directs readers to a full reference list entry. The in-text citation appears within the body of the paper (or in a table, figure, footnote, or appendix) and briefly identifies the cited work by its author and date of publication. This enables readers to locate the corresponding entry in the alphabetical reference list at the end of the paper.

Each work cited must appear in the reference list, and each work in the reference list must be cited in the text (or in a table, figure, footnote, or appendix).

Both paraphrases and quotations require citations.

The following are guidelines to follow when writing in-text citations:

• Ensure that the spelling of author names and the publication dates in reference list entries match those in the corresponding in-text citations.
• Cite only works that you have read and ideas that you have incorporated into your writing. The works you cite may provide key background information, support or dispute your thesis, or offer critical definitions and data.
• Readers may find a long string of citations difficult to understand, especially if they are using assistive technology such as a screen reader; therefore, include only those citations needed to support your immediate point.
• Cite primary sources when possible, and cite secondary sources sparingly.
• Cite sources to document all facts and figures that you mention that are not common knowledge.
• To cite a specific part of a source , provide an author–date citation for the work plus information about the specific part.
• Even when sources cannot be retrieved (e.g., because they are personal communications ), still credit them in the text (however, avoid using online sources that are no longer recoverable).

Basic principles of citation are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Sections 8.1 to 8.36 and the Concise Guide Sections 8.1 to 8.34

Related handouts

• In-Text Citation Checklist (PDF, 227KB)
• Six Steps to Proper Citation (PDF, 112KB)

From the APA Style blog

The importance of integrating APA Style into high school classrooms

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How to cite your own translations

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Key takeaways from the Psi Chi webinar So You Need to Write a Literature Review

This blog post describes key tasks in writing an effective literature review and provides strategies for approaching those tasks.

How to cite a work with a nonrecoverable source

In most cases, nonrecoverable sources such as personal emails, nonarchived social media livestreams (or deleted and unarchived social media posts), classroom lectures, unrecorded webinars or presentations, and intranet sources should be cited only in the text as personal communications.

The “outdated sources” myth

The “outdated sources” myth is that sources must have been published recently, such as the last 5 to 10 years. There is no timeliness requirement in APA Style.

From COVID-19 to demands for social justice: Citing contemporary sources for current events

The guidance in the seventh edition of the Publication Manual makes the process of citing contemporary sources found online easier than ever before.

Citing classical and religious works

A classical or religious work is cited as either a book or a webpage, depending on what version of the source you are using. This post includes details and examples.

Academic Writer—APA’s essential teaching resource for higher education instructors

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APA Style webinar on citing works in text

Attend the webinar, “Citing Works in Text Using Seventh Edition APA Style,” on July 14, 2020, to learn the keys to accurately and consistently citing sources in APA Style.

How to Write an Academic Essay with References and Citations

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Written by  Scribendi

If you're wondering how to write an academic essay with references, look no further. In this article, we'll discuss how to use in-text citations and references, including how to cite a website, how to cite a book, and how to cite a Tweet, according to various style guides.

You might need to cite sources when writing a paper that references other sources. For example, when writing an essay, you may use information from other works, such as books, articles, or websites. You must then inform readers where this information came from. Failure to do so, even accidentally, is plagiarism—passing off another person's work as your own.

You can avoid plagiarism and show readers where to find information by using citations and references. 

Citations tell readers where a piece of information came from. They take the form of footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical elements, depending on your style guide. In-text citations are usually placed at the end of a sentence containing the relevant information. 

A reference list , bibliography, or works cited list at the end of a text provides additional details about these cited sources. This list includes enough publication information allowing readers to look up these sources themselves.

Referencing is important for more than simply avoiding plagiarism. Referring to a trustworthy source shows that the information is reliable. Referring to reliable information can also support your major points and back up your argument. 

Learning how to write an academic essay with references and how to use in-text citations will allow you to cite authors who have made similar arguments. This helps show that your argument is objective and not entirely based on personal biases.

How Do You Determine Which Style Guide to Use?

Often, a professor will assign a style guide. The purpose of a style guide is to provide writers with formatting instructions. If your professor has not assigned a style guide, they should still be able to recommend one. 

If you are entirely free to choose, pick one that aligns with your field (for example, APA is frequently used for scientific writing). 

Some of the most common style guides are as follows:

AP style for journalism

Chicago style for publishing

APA style for scholarly writing (commonly used in scientific fields)

MLA style for scholarly citations (commonly used in English literature fields)

Some journals have their own style guides, so if you plan to publish, check which guide your target journal uses. You can do this by locating your target journal's website and searching for author guidelines.

How Do You Pick Your Sources?

When learning how to write an academic essay with references, you must identify reliable sources that support your argument. 

As you read, think critically and evaluate sources for:

Objectivity

Keep detailed notes on the sources so that you can easily find them again, if needed.

Tip: Record these notes in the format of your style guide—your reference list will then be ready to go.

How to Use In-Text Citations in MLA

An in-text citation in MLA includes the author's last name and the relevant page number: 

(Author 123)

How to Cite a Website in MLA

Here's how to cite a website in MLA:

Author's last name, First name. "Title of page."

Website. Website Publisher, date. Web. Date

retrieved. <URL>

With information from a real website, this looks like:

Morris, Nancy. "How to Cite a Tweet in APA,

Chicago, and MLA." Scribendi. Scribendi

Inc., n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2021.

<https://www.scribendi.com/academy/articles/how_to_cite_a_website.en.html>

How Do You Cite a Tweet in MLA ?

MLA uses the full text of a short Tweet (under 140 characters) as its title. Longer Tweets can be shortened using ellipses. 

MLA Tweet references should be formatted as follows:

@twitterhandle (Author Name). "Text of Tweet." Twitter, Date Month, Year, time of

publication, URL.

With information from an actual Tweet, this looks like:

@neiltyson (Neil deGrasse Tyson). "You can't use reason to convince anyone out of an

argument that they didn't use reason to get into." Twitter, 29 Sept. 2020, 10:15 p.m.,

https://twitter.com/neiltyson/status/1311127369785192449 .

How to Cite a Book in MLA

Here's how to cite a book in MLA:

Author's last name, First name. Book Title. Publisher, Year.

With publication information from a real book, this looks like:

Montgomery, L.M. Rainbow Valley. Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1919.

How to Cite a Chapter in a Book in MLA

Author's last name, First name. "Title of Chapter." Book Title , edited by Editor Name,

Publisher, Year, pp. page range.

With publication information from an actual book, this looks like:

Ezell, Margaret J.M. "The Social Author: Manuscript Culture, Writers, and Readers." The

Broadview Reader in Book History , edited by Michelle Levy and Tom Mole, Broadview

Press, 2015,pp. 375–394.

How to  Cite a Paraphrase in MLA

You can cite a paraphrase in MLA exactly the same way as you would cite a direct quotation. 

Make sure to include the author's name (either in the text or in the parenthetical citation) and the relevant page number.

How to Use In-Text Citations in APA

In APA, in-text citations include the author's last name and the year of publication; a page number is included only if a direct quotation is used: 

(Author, 2021, p. 123)

How to Cite a Website in APA

Here's how to cite a website in APA:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year, Month. date of publication). Title of page. https://URL

Morris, N. (n.d.). How to cite a Tweet in APA, Chicago, and MLA. 

https://www.scribendi.com/academy/articles/how_to_cite_a_website.en.html       

Tip: Learn more about how to write an academic essay with  references to websites .

How Do You  Cite a Tweet in APA ?

APA refers to Tweets using their first 20 words. 

Tweet references should be formatted as follows:

Author, A. A. [@twitterhandle). (Year, Month. date of publication). First 20 words of the

Tweet. [Tweet] Twitter. URL

When we input information from a real Tweet, this looks like:

deGrasse Tyson, N. [@neiltyson]. (2020, Sept. 29). You can't use reason to convince anyone

out of an argument that they didn't use reason to get into. [Tweet] Twitter.

https://twitter.com/neiltyson/status/1311127369785192449

How to Cite a Book in APA

Here's how to cite a book in APA:   

Author, A. A. (Year). Book title. Publisher.

For a real book, this looks like:

Montgomery, L. M. (1919). Rainbow valley.

Frederick A. Stokes Company.

How to Cite a Chapter in a Book in APA

Author, A. A. (Year). Chapter title. In Editor Name (Ed.), Book Title (pp. page range).

With information from a real book, this looks like:

Ezell, M. J. M. (2014). The social author: Manuscript culture, writers, and readers. In

Michelle Levy and Tom Mole (Eds.), The Broadview Reader in Book History (pp. 375–

394). Broadview Press.

Knowing how to cite a book and how to cite a chapter in a book correctly will take you a long way in creating an effective reference list.

How to Cite a Paraphrase in APA

You can cite a paraphrase in APA the same way as you would cite a direct quotation, including the author's name and year of publication. 

In APA, you may also choose to pinpoint the page from which the information is taken.

Referencing is an essential part of academic integrity. Learning how to write an academic essay with references and how to use in-text citations shows readers that you did your research and helps them locate your sources.

Learning how to cite a website, how to cite a book, and how to cite a paraphrase can also help you avoid plagiarism —an academic offense with serious consequences for your education or professional reputation.

Scribendi can help format your citations or review your whole paper with our Academic Editing services .

Take Your Essay from Good to Great

Hire an expert academic editor , or get a free sample, about the author.

Scribendi's in-house editors work with writers from all over the globe to perfect their writing. They know that no piece of writing is complete without a professional edit, and they love to see a good piece of writing transformed into a great one. Scribendi's in-house editors are unrivaled in both experience and education, having collectively edited millions of words and obtained numerous degrees. They love consuming caffeinated beverages, reading books of various genres, and relaxing in quiet, dimly lit spaces.

Have You Read?

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Essay Writing: In-Text Citations

• Essay Writing Basics
• Purdue OWL Page on Writing Your Thesis This link opens in a new window
• Paragraphs and Transitions
• How to Tell if a Website is Legitimate This link opens in a new window
• Formatting Your References Page
• Cite a Website
• Common Grammatical and Mechanical Errors
• Additional Resources
• Proofread Before You Submit Your Paper
• Structuring the 5-Paragraph Essay

In-text Citations

What are In-Text Citations?

You must cite (give credit) all information sources used in your essay or research paper whenever and wherever you use them.

When citing sources in the text of your paper, you must list:

● The author’s last name

● The year  the information was published.

Types of In-Text Citations: Narrative vs Parenthetical

A  narrative citation gives the author's name as part of the sentence .

• Example of a Narrative Citation: According to Edwards (2017) , a lthough Smith and Carlos's protest at the 1968 Olympics initially drew widespread criticism, it also led to fundamental reforms in the organizational structure of American amateur athletics.

A  parenthetical citation puts the source information in parentheses—first or last—but does not include it in  the narrative  flow.

• Example of a Parenthetical Citation:  Although Tommie Smith and John Carlos paid a heavy price in the immediate aftermath of the protests, they were later vindicated by society at large (Edwards, 2017) .

Full citation for this source (this belongs on the Reference Page of your research paper or essay):

Edwards, H. (2017).  The Revolt of the Black Athlete: 50th Anniversary Edition.  University of Illinois Press.

Sample In-text Citations

Note: This example is a  direct quote. It is an exact quotation directly from the text of the article. All direct quotes should appear in quotation marks: "...."

Try keeping direct quotes to a minimum in your writing. You need to show your understanding of the source material by being able to paraphrase or summarize it. 

List the author’s last name only (no initials) and the year the information was published, like this:

(Dodge, 2008 ). ( Author , Date).

IF you use a direct quote, add the page number to your citation, like this: 

( Dodge , 2008 , p. 125 ).

( Author , Date , page number )

What information should I cite in my paper/essay?

Credit these sources when you mention their information in any way: direct quotation, paraphrase, or summarize.

What should you credit?

Any information that you learned from another source, including:

● statistics

EXCEPTION: Information that is common knowledge: e.g., The Bronx is a borough of New York City.

Quick Sheet: APA 7 Citations

Quick help with apa 7 citations.

• Quick Sheet - Citing Journal Articles, Websites & Videos, and Creating In-Text Citations A quick guide to the most frequently-used types of APA 7 citations.

In-text Citation Tutorial

• Formatting In-text Citations, Full Citations, and Block Quotes In APA 7 Style This presentation will help you understand when, why, and how to use in-text citations in your APA style paper.

Download the In-text Citations presentation  (above)  for an in-depth look at how to correctly cite your sources in the text of your paper.

SIgnal Phrase Activity

Paraphrasing activity from the excelsior owl, in-text citation quiz.

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Encyclopedia

Writing with artificial intelligence, citation – definition – introduction to citation in academic & professional writing.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - Professor of English - USF

Explore the different ways to cite sources in academic and professional writing, including in-text (Parenthetical), numerical, and note citations.

Table of Contents

What is a Citation?

A “ citation ” refers to the act of integrating ideas or words from another source into your speech or writing , along with adhering to the specific discourse conventions (or standardized ways of acknowledging sources) in a particular academic or professional field . “Citations” are required in academic and professional writing when writers summarize , paraphrase , or quote the words or ideas others. Writers may also cite known experts to enhance the authority of their arguments and observations.

In both academic and professional settings, the practice of citing sources—whether through quotations , paraphrasing , or summarizing —is a fundamental mark of professionalism. Being capable of citing sources correctly and critiquing the citations of others is a basic literacy in a knowledge economy.

Most generally, “citation” refers to the act of crediting a source of information . While “citation” is the formal term, there are several colloquial synonyms that people might use interchangeably, such as “ attribution ,” “reference,” or “mention.” In more casual or conversational settings, phrases like “backing up” one’s claim or providing “proof” might be used. When writers or speakers incorporate information from an external source, they might say they are “citing,” “ attributing ,” or “referencing” that source.

Related Concepts: Academic Dishonesty ; Archive ; Authority in Academic Writing ; Canon ; Copyright ; Discourse ; Hermeneutics ; Information Has Value ; Intellectual Property ; Paraphrase ; Plagiarism ; Quotation ; Scholarship as a Conversation ; Summary

What Are The Three Major Ways of Citing Sources inside a Text?

While there are many different citation styles, as discussed below, there are only three major types of citations:

• In-text Citation (aka Parenthetical Citation)
• Numerical citation
• Note Citations

In-text Citation (aka Parenthetical Citation )

In-text Citation refers to the practice of placing bibliographical information in parentheses when sources/information are first introduced in a quote , paraphrase , or summary . The in-text citation is typically shorter and directs the reader to the full citation in the bibliography or reference list. In essence, all in-text citations are citations, but not all citations are in-text citations.

APA Example

When using APA style, writers place the author’s name, year, and page number (when available) in parentheses.

• “As of 2022, about 12,700 nuclear warheads are still estimated to be in use, of which more than 9,400 are in military stockpiles for use by missiles, aircraft, ships and submarines” (Eagle, 2022).

And then at the end of their text, they list all of the sources they cited in the text, providing all of the bibliographical information users need to track down the source and read it:

• Eagle, J. (2022, March 21). Animated chart: Nuclear warheads by country (1945-2022). Visual Capitalist .

Numerical Citation

Numerical Citation refers to when writers use numbers in brackets or superscript rather than parentheses to indicate to readers when they are quoting , paraphrasing , or summarizing :

IEEE Example

• “As of 2022, about 12,700 nuclear warheads are still estimated to be in use, of which more than 9,400 are in military stockpiles for use by missiles, aircraft, ships and submarines” [1]

Subsequently, in the reference list at the end of their text, writers provided the bibliographic information following the order of the citations in the text:

Chicago (Turabian) Example

• [1]J. Eagle, “Animated Chart: Nuclear Warheads by Country (1945-2022),” Visual Capitalist , Mar. 21, 2022. (accessed Jan. 03, 2023).

[ See Inclusive – Inclusive Language for a full-length example of Numerical Citations ]

Note Citation

Note Citations refers to when writers place citations numbers just as they do with numerical citations AND then provide all of the required bibliographical information in the text–as opposed to providing all that information at the end of the text in a list of references:

• “As of 2022, about 12,700 nuclear warheads are still estimated to be in use, of which more than  9,400  are in military stockpiles for use by missiles, aircraft, ships and submarines” J. Eagle, “Animated Chart: Nuclear Warheads by Country (1945-2022),” Visual Capitalist , Mar. 21, 2022. (accessed Jan. 03, 2023).

What Do All Citations Styles Have in Common?

Regardless of which citation style is used, attributions typically provide four types of bibliographical information :

• Name of Author(s)
• Title of source, whether it’s a book/article/website, etc
• Date of publication, if available
• Publisher information.

What Are the Most Popular Citation Styles?

Professional organizations (communities of practice) have unique ways of formatting citations. (See Wikipedia for a good listing of citation styles .)

Although style guides differ in regard to where the author’s name or publishing source is listed, they are all designed to ensure that proper credit is given to authors. As you know from your experience as a writer, developing insights and conducting original research is difficult and time consuming, so you can understand why people want to receive proper credit for their original ideas.

• MLA Handbook, 9th Edition Modern Language Association style is primarily used in the fields of English and foreign languages.
• Publication Manual of the APA: 7th Edition American Psychological Association’s style guide is used in psychology and education. Education and social science professors commonly ask students to follow the APA style for citing and documenting sources. APA differs from MLA in a number of ways, including the overall structure and format of the essay, but the major distinction between the two is APA’s use of the year of publication, rather than the page on which a particular quotation appears, for the in-text citation. APA requires in-text publication dates because of the particular importance of a study’s currency to research reports in the social sciences.
• Chicago Style is used in many social science fields.
• CSE (Council of Science Editors) is used by the scientific community
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) is used by the engineering community.

What Critical Perspectives Do Readers Use to Assess Your Citations?

Citation in speech and writing serves as a barometer of ethos , especially trustworthiness . When audiences are engaged in critical literacy practices , they are likely to question a source’s

When audiences check the archive and find that authors are making inconsistent quotations , they are likely to question the character or ethos of the author.

In other words, subject matter experts tend to be well versed in the ongoing conversations that characterize the works of other subject matter experts. Experienced researchers tend to engage in strategic searching of the archive . They engage in critical literacy practices , asking questions, such as

• What is the status of knowledge on the topic ?
• What is the ebb and flow of research on the topic –over time?
• What are the canonical texts ?
• Who are the pioneers? How has their work changed the conversation?
• What knowledge claims are currently being debated?

Related Articles:

APA - Publication Manual of the APA: 7th Edition

Attribution - What Is The Role of Attribution In Academic & Professional Writing?

Citation Guide - Learn How to Cite Sources in Academic and Professional Writing

Citation Tools

MLA - MLA Handbook, 9th Edition

Recommended.

Academic Writing – How to Write for the Academic Community

Structured Revision – How to Revise Your Work

Professional Writing – How to Write for the Professional World

Authority & Credibility – How to Be Credible & Authoritative in Research, Speech & Writing

Citation Guide – Learn How to Cite Sources in Academic and Professional Writing

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• Joseph M. Moxley

Attribution refers to the practice of crediting original sources for information or ideas. It encompasses recognizing authors, understanding their credentials, and correctly citing their work in your own speech and...

Citation isn’t just about adhering to prescribed rules or ensuring each dot and comma is in its rightful place. It’s a rhetorical, fluid, intuitive process where writers must balance the...

Citation Tools (aka bibliography tools or citation managers) are software tools that (1) facilitate the processes of finding, tagging, and annotating sources and (2) automate the formatting processes for citations...

Featured Articles

Citing sources: Overview

• Citation style guides

Manage your references

Use these tools to help you organize and cite your references:

• Citation Management and Writing Tools

If you have questions after consulting this guide about how to cite, please contact your advisor/professor or the writing and communication center .

Why citing is important

It's important to cite sources you used in your research for several reasons:

• To show your reader you've done proper research by listing sources you used to get your information
• To be a responsible scholar by giving credit to other researchers and acknowledging their ideas
• To avoid plagiarism by quoting words and ideas used by other authors
• To allow your reader to track down the sources you used by citing them accurately in your paper by way of footnotes, a bibliography or reference list

About citations

Citing a source means that you show, within the body of your text, that you took words, ideas, figures, images, etc. from another place.

Citations are a short way to uniquely identify a published work (e.g. book, article, chapter, web site).  They are found in bibliographies and reference lists and are also collected in article and book databases.

Citations consist of standard elements, and contain all the information necessary to identify and track down publications, including:

• author name(s)
• titles of books, articles, and journals
• date of publication
• page numbers
• volume and issue numbers (for articles)

Citations may look different, depending on what is being cited and which style was used to create them. Choose an appropriate style guide for your needs.  Here is an example of an article citation using four different citation styles.  Notice the common elements as mentioned above:

Author - R. Langer

Article Title - New Methods of Drug Delivery

Source Title - Science

Volume and issue - Vol 249, issue 4976

Publication Date - 1990

Page numbers - 1527-1533

American Chemical Society (ACS) style:

Langer, R. New Methods of Drug Delivery. Science 1990 , 249 , 1527-1533.

IEEE Style:

R. Langer, " New Methods of Drug Delivery," Science , vol. 249 , pp. 1527-1533 , SEP 28, 1990 .

American Psychological Association   (APA) style:

Langer, R. (1990) . New methods of drug delivery. Science , 249 (4976), 1527-1533.

Modern Language Association (MLA) style:

Langer, R. " New Methods of Drug Delivery." Science 249.4976 (1990) : 1527-33.

What to cite

You must cite:

• Facts, figures, ideas, or other information that is not common knowledge

Publications that must be cited include:  books, book chapters, articles, web pages, theses, etc.

Another person's exact words should be quoted and cited to show proper credit 

When in doubt, be safe and cite your source!

Avoiding plagiarism

Plagiarism occurs when you borrow another's words (or ideas) and do not acknowledge that you have done so. In this culture, we consider our words and ideas intellectual property; like a car or any other possession, we believe our words belong to us and cannot be used without our permission.

Plagiarism is a very serious offense. If it is found that you have plagiarized -- deliberately or inadvertently -- you may face serious consequences. In some instances, plagiarism has meant that students have had to leave the institutions where they were studying.

The best way to avoid plagiarism is to cite your sources - both within the body of your paper and in a bibliography of sources you used at the end of your paper.

Some useful links about plagiarism:

• MIT Academic Integrity Overview on citing sources and avoiding plagiarism at MIT.
• Avoiding Plagiarism From the MIT Writing and Communication Center.
• Plagiarism: What It is and How to Recognize and Avoid It From Indiana University's Writing Tutorial Services.
• Plagiarism- Overview A resource from Purdue University.
• Next: Citation style guides >>
• Last Updated: Jan 16, 2024 7:02 AM
• URL: https://libguides.mit.edu/citing

University Library

Start your research.

• Research Process
• Find Background Info
• Find Sources through the Library
• Evaluate Your Info
• Cite Your Sources
• Evaluate, Write & Cite

• is the right thing to do  to give credit to those who had the idea
• shows that you have read and understand  what experts have had to say about your topic
• helps people find the sources  that you used in case they want to read more about the topic
• provides   evidence  for your arguments
• is professional and  standard practice   for students and scholars

What is a Citation?

A citation identifies for the reader the original source for an idea, information, or image that is referred to in a work.

• In the body of a paper, the  in-text citation  acknowledges the source of information used.
• At the end of a paper, the citations are compiled on a  References  or  Works Cited  list. A basic citation includes the author, title, and publication information of the source. 

From:  Lemieux  Library,  University  of Seattle 

Why Should You Cite?

Quoting Are you quoting two or more consecutive words from a source? Then the original source should be cited and the words or phrase placed in quotes. 

Paraphrasing If an idea or information comes from another source,  even if you put it in your own words , you still need to credit the source.  General vs. Unfamiliar Knowledge You do not need to cite material which is accepted common knowledge. If in doubt whether your information is common knowledge or not, cite it. Formats We usually think of books and articles. However, if you use material from web sites, films, music, graphs, tables, etc. you'll also need to cite these as well.

Plagiarism is presenting the words or ideas of someone else as your own without proper acknowledgment of the source. When you work on a research paper and use supporting material from works by others, it's okay to quote people and use their ideas, but you do need to correctly credit them. Even when you summarize or paraphrase information found in books, articles, or Web pages, you must acknowledge the original author.

Citation Style Help

Helpful links:

• MLA ,  Works Cited : A Quick Guide (a template of core elements)
• CSE  (Council of Science Editors)

For additional writing resources specific to styles listed here visit the  Purdue OWL Writing Lab

Citation and Bibliography Resources

• How to Write an Annotated Bibliography
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• Next: Evaluate, Write & Cite >>

Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License except where otherwise noted.

Land Acknowledgement

The land on which we gather is the unceded territory of the Awaswas-speaking Uypi Tribe. The Amah Mutsun Tribal Band, comprised of the descendants of indigenous people taken to missions Santa Cruz and San Juan Bautista during Spanish colonization of the Central Coast, is today working hard to restore traditional stewardship practices on these lands and heal from historical trauma.

The land acknowledgement used at UC Santa Cruz was developed in partnership with the Amah Mutsun Tribal Band Chairman and the Amah Mutsun Relearning Program at the UCSC Arboretum .

• Directories
• What are citations and why should I use them?

When should I use a citation?

• Why are there so many citation styles?
• Which citation style should I use?
• Chicago Notes Style
• Chicago Author-Date Style
• AMA Style (medicine)
• Bluebook (law)
• Additional Citation Styles
• Built-in Citation Tools
• Quick Citation Generators
• Citation Management Software
• Start Your Research
• Research Guides
• University of Washington Libraries
• Library Guides
• UW Libraries
• Citing Sources

Citing Sources: When should I use a citation?

A citation should be used when content that did not originate with you is used to support your writing.

Content includes:

• words (quotations, phrases, sayings, etc.)
• thoughts or ideas (summarizations and paraphrases)
• audio or visual material (photos, videos, screencaptures, powerpoint slides, social media content, audio recordings, etc.)

Here are a few pages from Excelsior OWL's guide to writing process to get you started:

• Summarizing sources
• Paraphrasing sources
• Using quotations

What you don't need to cite

No need to cite what is known as common knowledge.

But, what is common knowledge?  Common knowledge includes information that someone can easily trace and find the answer to.  In an academic context, common knowledge will depend on the audience, but here are some examples to get you started:

• There are 24 hours in a day.
• The President of the United States can serve up to two terms in office, each term lasting four years.
• The phone number for emergency services in the United States is 9-1-1

More examples of how to determine if something is common knowledge:

• Common Knowledge & Plagiarism (from Excelsior OWL)

When in doubt, cite --  You won’t be judged harshly for adding a citation when it isn’t needed.  However, skipping a citation (whether it’s an accident or not) could be considered plagiarism, which can have serious consequences.

• << Previous: What are citations and why should I use them?
• Next: Why are there so many citation styles? >>
• Last Updated: May 1, 2024 12:48 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uw.edu/research/citations

• Ask a Librarian

Research Guide for Online Communication Students

• Find Sources
• Citing & Writing
• APA Formatting & Style Guide From Purdue's OWL.
• APA Style Help Overviews, tutorials, and FAQs

Online Writing Lab

Organizing and Managing Citations

Citation management software can help you manage your research and easily organize and format your citations in a wide variety of citation styles. Check out the links below for more information about these useful programs. 

• Citation Management Basics This guide provides an overview of citation management software options, including basic functions and the differences between the various options available, including EndNote, EndNote Web, and Zotero. Also provided is contact information for Purdue librarians available to provide citation management support for Purdue faculty, students, and staff.
• EndNote at Purdue This guide provides detailed how-to and FAQ for EndNote citation management software, the desktop version.
• EndNote Basic EndNote Basic is an online citation management program that is freely available for all Purdue users. This guide highlights how-to, key functions, and FAQ, as well as differences between the desktop and online versions of this product.
• Zotero Zotero is a free and open, web-based citation management program. This guide provides info on getting started and carrying out key functions, for students and instructors. It also includes video tutorials.

Avoid Plagiarism

• Types of Plagiarism Plagiarism.org presents Plagiarism 101: What is Plagiarism?
• Citing Sources Plagiarism.org's useful guide to everything about citing sources.
• Avoiding Plagiarism Tips on how to summarize, paraphrase, and quote sources without plagiarizing from the Purdue OWL. Use the links on the left to navigate.
• << Previous: Find Sources
• Next: FAQ >>
• Last Edited: Aug 26, 2024 4:29 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.purdue.edu/onlinecomm

What Is Citation?

A citation refers to a source of information used to support or substantiate ideas, arguments, or statements in a piece of writing. Citations are essential in academic and professional work as they provide evidence of the research that underpins the content and give credit to the original authors of the referenced material. By properly citing sources, writers maintain the integrity of their work, avoid plagiarism, and contribute to the ongoing academic conversation by allowing readers to trace the origins of the ideas presented. Citations can take various forms, including in-text citations, footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographic entries, depending on the style guide being followed.

A citation is a formal reference to a source of information used in a piece of writing, such as a book, article, website, or other document. Citations are essential in academic, professional, and research contexts as they acknowledge the original source of ideas, data, or content, giving credit to the authors and allowing readers to verify and explore the original material.

Citations typically include specific details such as the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication date, and the location of the source (such as a URL or page number). These references not only support the credibility and integrity of the work but also help to avoid plagiarism by clearly distinguishing between the writer’s own ideas and those borrowed from others. Various citation styles, like APA, MLA, and Chicago, have specific rules for formatting citations, depending on the discipline or field of study.

Why Citation is Important in Academic and Professional Writing?

Citation is a cornerstone of academic and professional writing, playing a critical role in the integrity, credibility, and effectiveness of scholarly and professional communication. Whether you’re a student writing a research paper, a scholar publishing in a journal, or a professional preparing a report, understanding the importance of citation is essential. Citation is crucial in academic and professional writing for several key reasons:

• Acknowledgment of Sources: One of the primary reasons citation is important is that it acknowledges the original authors and creators of the ideas, data, or research that you incorporate into your work. In academic writing, this practice demonstrates respect for the intellectual property of others. By citing sources, you recognize the contributions of other researchers and scholars, showing that your work is built on a foundation of established knowledge. This acknowledgment is not merely a formality but a key component of the ethical standards underpinning scholarly communication. In professional writing, citation serves a similar function. It gives credit to the original creators of information, whether it’s data, theories, or specific findings. By properly attributing sources, professionals maintain ethical standards in their work and ensure that they are not misrepresenting others’ contributions as their own.
• Avoidance of Plagiarism : Plagiarism is a serious issue in both academic and professional environments. It involves using someone else’s work without giving them proper credit, effectively passing it off as your own. Plagiarism can occur in various forms, including copying text, paraphrasing ideas without attribution, or using data or images without permission. The consequences of plagiarism are severe, ranging from academic penalties such as failing grades or expulsion to legal repercussions and damage to one’s professional reputation. Proper citation practices help prevent plagiarism by clearly distinguishing between your own work and the work of others. By citing all sources of information that are not your original ideas, you ensure that you are not inadvertently or intentionally taking credit for someone else’s intellectual property. This protects you from the consequences of plagiarism and upholds the ethical standards of your discipline or profession.
• Verification and Credibility: Citations are essential for the verification of information in academic and professional writing. When you cite a source, you provide a reference that allows readers to trace the information back to its original context. This transparency is crucial in establishing the credibility of your work. Readers can verify the accuracy of the information you present by consulting the original sources, which adds to the reliability of your arguments and conclusions. In academic writing, the credibility of your work is often judged by the quality and reliability of the sources you cite. Citing well-respected and authoritative sources strengthens your arguments and shows that your research is grounded in a thorough and rigorous review of the existing literature. In professional contexts, credibility is equally important. Clients, colleagues, or stakeholders need to trust that the information you provide is accurate and based on reliable data or research. Proper citation practices help build this trust.
• Facilitation of Further Research: Citations are not only important for acknowledging sources and establishing credibility; they also play a key role in facilitating further research. By providing full references to the sources you use, you enable others to follow your research trail, explore the same materials, and build upon your work. This is particularly important in academic research, where scholars often build on each other’s findings to advance knowledge within a field. In professional writing, citations can also facilitate collaboration and information sharing. By clearly citing the sources of data or ideas, you make it easier for colleagues to access the same information and continue the work you have started. This can lead to more efficient and effective collaboration, as well as the development of new ideas and innovations.
• Contribution to Academic Dialogue: In the academic world, writing is often seen as part of a larger conversation among scholars. Citations are a way of situating your work within this ongoing dialogue, linking your research to the broader scholarly community. By citing sources, you show how your work relates to existing research, whether it supports, challenges, or extends current knowledge. This practice is crucial for demonstrating the significance of your work and its contribution to your field. Citations also help to avoid redundancy in research by showing what has already been studied and where gaps in knowledge exist. This allows scholars to focus on new areas of inquiry rather than duplicating efforts. In this way, citation practices contribute to the efficient advancement of knowledge within a discipline.
• Legal and Ethical Compliance: Finally, proper citation is important for legal and ethical compliance, particularly when dealing with copyrighted material. Copyright laws protect the intellectual property of creators, and using someone else’s work without proper attribution can lead to legal disputes. In academic and professional contexts, it is essential to comply with these laws by citing all sources of information that are not your own. Failure to cite sources correctly in professional writing can lead to serious legal and financial consequences, including lawsuits, fines, and damage to your or your organization’s reputation. By adhering to proper citation practices, you ensure that you are respecting the rights of creators and avoiding potential legal issues.

Citation is a fundamental aspect of academic and professional writing, essential for maintaining ethical standards, avoiding plagiarism, establishing credibility, and contributing to the advancement of knowledge. Whether you are writing a research paper, a professional report, or any other form of scholarly or professional communication, understanding and practicing proper citation is crucial. By doing so, you not only protect yourself from potential ethical and legal issues but also contribute to the integrity and quality of your field.

What are the key elements that make up a citation?

A citation typically consists of several key elements that provide the necessary information for readers to locate and verify the source of the information you have referenced. The specific elements may vary depending on the citation style (such as APA , MLA , or Chicago), but the following components are generally included in most citations:

• Who created the work? The author(s) are the individuals or organizations responsible for the creation of the work. This can be a single author, multiple authors, an editor, or a corporate author (such as an organization or government body).
• What is the name of the work? The title refers to the specific name of the source you are citing. This could be the title of a book, article, report, webpage, chapter, or other type of work. In some citation styles, the title may need to be italicized or placed in quotation marks.
• When was the work published? The date of publication indicates when the work was published or made available to the public. This can be a specific year, month, and day for articles, websites, or other timely sources. For books, it is usually just the year.
• Where was the work published? The source or publisher refers to the entity that produced or disseminated the work. For books, this would be the publishing house; for articles, it might be the journal or magazine title; for websites, it would be the name of the website or organization hosting the content.
• Where can the work be found? Depending on the type of source, this may include information such as the volume and issue number for journal articles, the edition for books, or the URL for online sources. For books, this might also include the place of publication (city and state or country).
• What specific part of the work is being referenced? Page numbers are used to indicate the specific parts of a source where the information can be found. This is especially important for direct quotations or when referencing specific sections of a work, such as chapters in a book or articles in a journal.
• How can the digital source be accessed? For digital sources, a DOI (Digital Object Identifier) or URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is often included. The DOI is a unique alphanumeric string that provides a permanent link to the source, while the URL is the web address where the source can be accessed online.
• Which version of the work are you citing? If you are citing a specific edition or version of a work, such as a revised edition of a book or a particular version of software, this information should be included to clarify which iteration of the work you are referencing.
• Who else contributed to the work? If the work has editors, translators, or other significant contributors who should be acknowledged, their names may also be included in the citation, especially if their contributions are central to the work you are citing.

These elements work together to provide a complete and accurate reference, allowing others to locate and verify the sources in your writing. Different citation styles may have specific rules about how these elements should be formatted and presented.

How does a citation differ from a reference?

Citations and references are closely related concepts in academic and professional writing, but they serve different purposes and appear in different parts of a document. Here’s how they differ:

In essence, citations point the reader to the full references, which contain the complete details needed to find the source material. Both are essential in academic and professional writing to maintain transparency, credibility, and academic integrity.

Why is it necessary to include citations in research papers and essays?

Including citations in research papers and essays is not just a formal requirement but a fundamental aspect of academic and professional writing that serves multiple important functions. Firstly, citations are essential for giving proper credit to the original authors of the ideas, research, and data you incorporate into your work. This practice is rooted in academic integrity and helps to prevent plagiarism, which is the unethical use of someone else’s work without acknowledgment. By citing your sources, you recognize the intellectual contributions of others, show respect for their work, and maintain the ethical standards expected in academic and professional settings.

Citations play a critical role in strengthening your arguments and supporting the claims you make in your paper. By referencing credible and authoritative sources, you provide evidence that backs up your assertions, thereby enhancing the persuasiveness and validity of your writing. This builds trust with your readers and demonstrates that your work is grounded in a thorough understanding of the existing literature. Readers are likelier to take your arguments seriously when they see that you have based them on well-researched and reliable sources. It also serves as a tool for transparency and verification. When you cite your sources, you provide a pathway for readers to trace the information back to its original context. This allows them to verify the accuracy and reliability of the data or ideas you present, which is crucial for maintaining the credibility of your work. In academic research, where the validity of your conclusions often depends on the strength of your sources, citations are indispensable.

In addition to these benefits, citations reflect your research’s depth and breadth. A well-cited paper indicates that you have engaged with various sources and perspectives, demonstrating that you have comprehensively reviewed the relevant literature. This not only adds to the credibility of your work but also positions it within the broader academic conversation, showing how your research contributes to, challenges, or extends existing knowledge. Proper citation is essential for complying with legal and ethical standards, particularly concerning copyright laws. By citing sources correctly, you ensure that you respect the intellectual property rights of original authors, avoiding potential legal issues that could arise from the misuse of copyrighted material. This is especially important in professional writing, where the consequences of failing to adhere to citation standards can include legal disputes, financial penalties, and damage to your or your organization’s reputation.

Citations enhance reader engagement by providing them with the resources to explore the topic further. Readers can refer to the cited sources for more in-depth information when encountering a point or idea that piques their interest. This enriches their understanding and fosters a deeper connection with the material you have presented.

What are the different types of citations, and how are they used?

There are several types of citations used in academic and professional writing, each serving different purposes and formats depending on the context and the citation style being followed. Below are the main types of citations and how they are used:

• APA Style: (Smith, 2020)
• MLA Style: (Smith 23)
• Chicago Style: (Smith 2020, 23) These citations are placed immediately after the referenced material or at the end of a sentence.
• Chicago Style (Footnote): In the text: “The study has shown significant results.¹” At the bottom of the page: ¹John Smith, The Study of Results (New York: Academic Press, 2020), 45. Footnotes and endnotes are commonly used in Chicago and Turabian styles, particularly in humanities disciplines.
• APA Style: (Smith, 2020, p. 45)
• MLA Style: (Smith 45) Parenthetical citations are placed directly after the information or quote being cited.
• APA Style: Smith (2020) found that “students performed better in interactive environments” (p. 45). Narrative citations are particularly useful when discussing multiple sources or emphasizing the contribution of a specific author.
• APA Style: Smith, J. (2020). The Study of Results . New York, NY: Academic Press.
• MLA Style: Smith, John. The Study of Results . Academic Press, 2020.
• Chicago Style: Smith, John. The Study of Results . New York: Academic Press, 2020. These citations are alphabetically listed at the end of the document.

Long quotations are formatted as block quotes. This helps in distinguishing the quoted material from the rest of the text, making it clear that the passage is a direct excerpt from a source. (p. 45) Block citations are used across various citation styles, including APA, MLA, and Chicago, with specific formatting rules.

• Example in APA Style: Smith, J. (2020). The Study of Results . New York, NY: Academic Press. This book provides a comprehensive overview of research methodologies in education. Smith offers valuable insights into statistical analysis, making it a useful resource for quantitative research. Annotated citations are used primarily in annotated bibliographies to give readers a better understanding of each source’s content and relevance.
• APA Style: Smith’s study (as cited in Johnson, 2020) found that students performed better in interactive environments. In the reference list, only the secondary source (Johnson, 2020) is included. This type of citation should be used sparingly and only when the original source is unavailable.

Each type of citation serves a specific purpose in the writing process, ensuring that sources are properly credited, arguments are supported, and readers can verify and explore the sources of information. Understanding these different types of citations and how to use them correctly is crucial for maintaining the integrity and credibility of academic and professional writing.

How do citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) influence the format of a citation?

Citation styles like APA, MLA, and Chicago provide standardized guidelines for how citations should be formatted in academic and professional writing. These styles influence the format of citations in several key ways, including the structure, punctuation, and information required for different types of sources. Below is an overview of how these citation styles differ and how they affect the format of citations.

1. APA Style (American Psychological Association):

• Focus: APA style is widely used in the social sciences, such as psychology, education, and sociology. It emphasizes the author-date format, which helps readers quickly identify the currency of the research.
• Example: (Smith, 2020, p. 45)
• Example for a Book: Smith, J. (2020). The art of writing . New York, NY: Writing Press.
• Example for a Journal Article: Smith, J. (2020). The impact of writing styles on reader engagement. Journal of Writing Studies , 15(3), 45-60.

2. MLA Style (Modern Language Association)

• Focus: MLA style is commonly used in the humanities, particularly in literature, philosophy, and the arts. It emphasizes the author-page format, which is particularly useful in works that rely heavily on text and direct quotations.
• Example: (Smith 45)
• Example for a Book: Smith, John. The Art of Writing . Writing Press, 2020.
• Example for a Journal Article: Smith, John. “The Impact of Writing Styles on Reader Engagement.” Journal of Writing Studies , vol. 15, no. 3, 2020, pp. 45-60.

3. Chicago Style (Chicago Manual of Style)

• Focus: Chicago style is versatile and is used across a wide range of disciplines, including history, business, and the fine arts. It offers two systems: the Notes and Bibliography system, which is common in the humanities, and the Author-Date system, which is used in the sciences and social sciences.
• Example (Footnote): John Smith, The Art of Writing (New York: Writing Press, 2020), 45.
• Example: (Smith 2020, 45)
• Example for a Book (Notes and Bibliography): Smith, John. The Art of Writing . New York: Writing Press, 2020.
• Example for a Journal Article (Notes and Bibliography): Smith, John. “The Impact of Writing Styles on Reader Engagement.” Journal of Writing Studies 15, no. 3 (2020): 45-60.
• Example for a Book (Author-Date): Smith, John. 2020. The Art of Writing . New York: Writing Press.
• Example for a Journal Article (Author-Date): Smith, John. 2020. “The Impact of Writing Styles on Reader Engagement.” Journal of Writing Studies 15(3): 45-60.

Key Differences Among APA, MLA, and Chicago

• Author-Date vs. Author-Page: APA and Chicago Author-Date emphasize the year of publication, which is important in fields where the timeliness of research is critical. MLA focuses on the page number, which is more relevant in text-heavy disciplines where specific passages are analyzed.
• Reference List Titles: APA uses “References,” MLA uses “Works Cited,” and Chicago uses either “Bibliography” (Notes and Bibliography system) or “References” (Author-Date system).
• Order and Punctuation: The order of elements (such as author name, publication date, title, etc.) and the punctuation used (commas, periods, parentheses) vary between styles. For example, APA places the publication year immediately after the author’s name, while MLA places it later in the citation.
• Formatting: MLA titles are typically italicized without quotation marks (for books) or placed in quotation marks (for articles), while APA italicizes book titles and uses sentence cases for article titles. Chicago has flexible rules that depend on whether you’re using the Notes and Bibliography system or the Author-Date system.

Citation styles influence the format of citations by dictating the structure, order of information, punctuation, and specific details required for each type of source. Understanding these differences is crucial for ensuring that your citations are accurate, consistent, and appropriate for the discipline in which you are writing. Proper use of citation styles not only supports the credibility of your work but also ensures that you adhere to the conventions of academic and professional writing in your field.

What role do citations play in supporting the credibility of an argument or research?

Citations play a critical role in supporting the credibility of an argument or research by providing evidence, demonstrating thoroughness, allowing for verification, and situating the work within a broader scholarly context. Here’s how citations contribute to the credibility of your work:

• Providing Evidence for Claims: Citations offer concrete evidence to support the claims and arguments you make in your writing. When you cite a source, you are essentially drawing on the authority of established research or expert opinion to reinforce your own points. This use of evidence is crucial because it shows that your arguments are not just based on personal beliefs or unsubstantiated opinions but are instead grounded in data, theories, and findings that have been validated by other scholars or professionals in the field. For instance, if you are arguing that a particular teaching method is effective, citing studies that demonstrate its success in various educational settings adds substantial weight to your claim. This evidence-based approach is essential for building a persuasive and credible argument.
• Demonstrating Thoroughness of Research: Citations also reflect the thoroughness of your research. When you include a wide range of sources in your work, it indicates that you have conducted a comprehensive review of the relevant literature and are familiar with the key debates, theories, and findings in your field. This thoroughness is important because it shows that your conclusions are informed by a deep understanding of the topic rather than being based on a superficial or selective reading of the literature. It also signals to your readers that you have considered multiple perspectives and are aware of the complexities and nuances of the issue at hand. This depth of research contributes significantly to the credibility of your work, as it suggests that your arguments are well-rounded and carefully considered.
• Enabling Verification of Information: Citations allow readers to verify the information you present, which is crucial to maintaining transparency and trust in your work. By providing accurate citations, you give readers the opportunity to trace the sources of your information and evaluate the reliability and validity of the data or arguments you have used. This verification process is important because it enables readers to assess the quality of the sources you have relied on and to determine whether your conclusions are supported by credible evidence. In academic research, where the accuracy and reliability of information are paramount, the ability to verify sources is a key factor in establishing the trustworthiness of your work.
• Situating Work Within a Broader Academic Context: Citations serve to situate your work within the broader academic or professional context, showing how it relates to and builds upon existing research. When you cite other scholars or studies, you are engaging with the ongoing discourse in your field, whether you are supporting, challenging, or extending existing knowledge. This engagement is critical because it demonstrates that your work is part of a larger conversation rather than being isolated or disconnected from the work of others. It also allows you to position your research within the context of established theories or debates, making it clear how your contributions add to or differ from what has already been done. This contextualization enhances the credibility of your work by linking it to recognized and respected bodies of knowledge.
• Acknowledging Intellectual Property and Ethical Integrity: Citations are also essential for acknowledging the intellectual contributions of others, which is a key aspect of academic and professional ethics. By properly attributing ideas, data, and research to their original authors, you show that you respect the intellectual property of others and adhere to the ethical standards of your discipline. This acknowledgment is important not only for avoiding plagiarism but also for building trust with your readers. When you cite sources accurately and consistently, you demonstrate that you are committed to maintaining the integrity of your work, which in turn enhances its credibility.
• Strengthening the Logical Structure of Arguments: Citations help to build a logically coherent and well-supported argument by allowing you to draw on the findings and insights of established research. When your argument is backed by citations from credible sources, it becomes less susceptible to criticism or dismissal as speculative or biased. Instead, it is seen as part of a reasoned, evidence-based discussion that contributes meaningfully to the field. This logical structuring of arguments, supported by citations, is essential for convincing readers of the validity of your conclusions. It also helps to ensure that your work is persuasive and respected within the academic or professional community.

Citations are a foundational element of credible research and writing. They provide the necessary support for your arguments, demonstrate the thoroughness of your research, enable verification by readers, situate your work within a broader scholarly context, acknowledge intellectual contributions, and strengthen the logical structure of your arguments. By carefully selecting and accurately citing credible sources, you enhance the trustworthiness, reliability, and overall credibility of your work, making it more persuasive and respected in academic and professional circles.

How Does One Determine What Needs to Be Cited in a Piece of Writing?

In academic and professional writing, citations play a crucial role in maintaining integrity, giving credit to original authors, and enhancing the credibility of your work. However, determining what exactly needs to be cited can sometimes be challenging, especially for those new to rigorous research practices. Here are the key principles to help you determine what needs to be cited:

• What to Cite: Any time you reproduce the exact words from another source, whether it’s a sentence, a phrase, or a few words, you must provide a citation. This applies regardless of the type of source—whether it’s a book, article, website, speech, or interview.
• Why: Direct quotations are the intellectual property of the original author, and using their exact words without acknowledgment is considered plagiarism. Citing the source of the quotation not only gives credit to the original author but also allows your readers to locate the original context of the quote. For instance, if you quote a definition of a concept directly from a textbook, you must cite that textbook to give proper credit to the author and to provide your readers with a reference point for further reading.
• What to Cite: Paraphrasing involves rewording someone else’s ideas or information in your own words. Even though the wording is original to you, the underlying ideas or concepts are not, so a citation is required.
• Why: Paraphrasing allows you to incorporate others’ ideas into your work while still demonstrating your understanding by expressing those ideas in your own language. However, since the original ideas belong to another person, citing the source is necessary to acknowledge their contribution. For example, if you summarize a study’s findings in your own words, you must still cite the original study to show that the data or conclusions are not your own.
• What to Cite: Specific facts, figures, statistics, or data points that are not common knowledge should be cited. This includes information from studies, surveys, reports, or any empirical research.
• Why: Facts and data often come from original research or analysis conducted by others. Using these without citation can mislead readers into thinking that you conducted the research or analysis yourself. Citing these sources also adds credibility to your work, as it shows that your arguments are backed by verifiable evidence. For instance, if you include a statistic about the percentage of internet users in a particular region, you need to cite the study or report from which that statistic was drawn.
• What to Cite: When you discuss or build upon someone else’s ideas, theories, hypotheses, or interpretations, you must cite the source of these intellectual contributions.
• Why: Theoretical frameworks, interpretations, and analyses represent significant intellectual work by their original authors. Citing these sources shows that you are engaging with the existing body of knowledge in your field and are respecting the intellectual labor of others. For example, if you use a specific theoretical model to analyze data in your research, you need to cite the original work where that model was developed.
• What to Cite: Common knowledge refers to information that is widely known and generally accepted by the public or within a particular field. If the information is not common knowledge, it should be cited. This includes specialized knowledge that may not be familiar to a general audience.
• Why: Common knowledge does not require citation because it is widely known and easily verifiable (e.g., “The Earth orbits the Sun”). However, information that is specific to a particular field, region, or subject area and that may not be known by the general public should be cited to acknowledge the original source. For instance, while it is common knowledge that Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet, specific interpretations of the play’s themes or a less well-known historical fact about Shakespeare’s life would require citation.
• What to Cite: Any visual content such as images, graphs, charts, videos, and audio clips that you did not create yourself should be cited. This applies even if the material is freely available online or in public domains.
• Why: Visual and multimedia content is protected by copyright, and using it without proper attribution can infringe on the rights of the original creators. Citing these sources also allows your readers to verify the context and authenticity of the visual material. For example, if you include a graph from a research article, you must cite the article to credit the original author and provide a reference for readers who may want to see the graph in its original context.
• What to Cite: Information obtained through personal communications, such as interviews, emails, letters, or conversations, should be cited, typically with a note indicating the nature of the communication.
• Why: Personal communications provide unique insights or information that are not publicly accessible and thus require citation to acknowledge the source of this information. Since personal communications are not recoverable by readers, they are usually cited within the text but not included in the reference list. For example, if you quote an expert’s opinion from an email exchange, you would cite it in-text as a personal communication and provide details about the communication date.
• What to Cite: Specific case studies, examples, or detailed illustrations that are derived from other sources need to be cited.
• Why: Case studies and examples often contain in-depth analysis and unique information that contribute significantly to your argument. Citing these sources shows that you are building on the work of others and provides readers with the context to explore these examples further. For instance, if you discuss a specific business case study to support your argument about a management strategy, you must cite the source of that case study.
• What to Consider: The distinction between common knowledge and specialized knowledge is not always clear-cut. Common knowledge is information that is widely known and accepted without needing verification, such as “Water freezes at 0°C.” Specialized knowledge, however, refers to information that may be well-known within a particular field but not to the general public.
• Why: When in doubt, it’s safer to cite a source. This approach helps avoid accidental plagiarism and ensures that all contributions to your work are properly acknowledged. For example, while general facts about World War II might not require citation, specific details about a particular battle or the analysis of its impact would require a citation.
• What to Cite: General reference works like encyclopedias, dictionaries, or widely accepted historical dates typically do not need to be cited for common knowledge. However, specific interpretations, detailed entries, or less widely known information from these sources should be cited.
• Why: While reference works often provide background information, citing them ensures that you credit the source of more specialized knowledge or specific interpretations that are not universally known. For example, if you use a specific interpretation of a historical event from an encyclopedia entry, you should cite that entry to acknowledge the original source.

The decision of what to cite in your writing hinges on whether the information, idea, or content originated from your own work or from someone else’s. Direct quotations, paraphrased material, specific facts, ideas, theories, multimedia content, personal communications, and specialized knowledge all require citations. By carefully considering what needs to be cited, you uphold academic integrity, avoid plagiarism, and strengthen the credibility of your work. When in doubt, it’s always better to err on the side of caution and provide a citation, ensuring that all intellectual contributions are properly recognized.

FAQ about Citation:

• What is a citation? Answer: A citation is a reference to a source of information that you have used in your research or writing. It typically includes details like the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication date, and the location of the source, allowing readers to locate the original material.
• Why is citation important? Answer: Citation is important because it gives credit to the original authors, helps to avoid plagiarism, supports the credibility of your work, and allows readers to verify your sources and explore further reading.
• When should I cite a source? Answer: You should cite a source whenever you use someone else’s ideas, words, data, or any other intellectual property. This includes direct quotes, paraphrased ideas, specific facts, data, theories, and visual content that are not common knowledge.
• What is plagiarism? Answer: Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s work, ideas, or words without proper attribution, effectively passing them off as your own. It is considered a serious violation of academic and professional ethics.
• What is the difference between a citation and a reference? Answer: A citation is a brief mention within your text that indicates the source of information. A reference provides the full details of the source and is listed at the end of your document in a bibliography, reference list, or works cited section.
• Do I need to cite common knowledge? Answer: No, common knowledge, which is information widely known and generally accepted by the public (e.g., “The Earth orbits the Sun”), does not require citation. However, when in doubt, it’s safer to cite the source.
• How do I cite a website? Answer: To cite a website, include the author (if available), the title of the webpage or article, the website name, the publication date (if available), and the URL. The format may vary depending on the citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• What should I do if I can’t find the author of a source? Answer: If the author is not available, you can begin the citation with the title of the work. Depending on the citation style, you may also include the organization or entity responsible for the content as the author.
• How do I cite a source I found within another source? Answer: This is known as citing a secondary source. You should mention the original source in your text but only cite the secondary source (the one you actually accessed) in your reference list. For example, in APA: “Smith’s study (as cited in Johnson, 2020)…”
• What is a DOI, and how do I use it in citations? Answer: A DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is a unique alphanumeric string assigned to digital content, such as journal articles. When available, you should include the DOI in your citation, typically at the end, to provide a stable link to the source.
• Can I cite sources in my introduction or conclusion? Answer: Yes, you can and should cite sources in any part of your paper, including the introduction and conclusion, if you are using someone else’s ideas, data, or findings to support your arguments.
• APA is commonly used in the social sciences and emphasizes the author-date format.
• MLA is used mainly in the humanities and emphasizes the author-page format.
• Chicago offers two systems: Notes and Bibliography (used in humanities) and Author-Date (used in sciences).
• Do I need to cite my own work if I reuse it? Answer: Yes, if you reuse your previous work, you should cite it to avoid self-plagiarism. This applies to using text, data, or ideas from your past assignments or publications.
• How do I handle multiple citations in one sentence? Answer: When citing multiple sources in one sentence, you can either cite them together in a single parenthesis, separated by semicolons (e.g., Smith, 2020; Johnson, 2019), or cite them individually, depending on your citation style.
• What is an annotated bibliography? Answer: An annotated bibliography is a list of citations followed by brief annotations. These annotations summarize the source and evaluate its relevance, quality, and contribution to your research.
• How do I avoid over-citation in my writing? Answer: To avoid over-citation, ensure that you cite sources only when you are directly using someone else’s work, ideas, or data. Avoid citing common knowledge or overly citing the same source for general statements. Use citations strategically to support key points rather than every sentence.
• What should I do if I can’t find the publication date of a source? Answer: If the publication date is not available, you can use “n.d.” (no date) in your citation. For example, in APA: (Smith, n.d.).
• Is it necessary to include page numbers in citations? Answer: Including page numbers is necessary when citing specific information, such as direct quotes or specific data points, especially in styles like APA and MLA. Page numbers help readers locate the exact part of the source you are referencing.
• Can I cite Wikipedia or other user-generated content? Answer: While Wikipedia and other user-generated content can be useful for background information, they are generally not considered reliable sources for academic work. If you do use them, treat them as a starting point and seek out more authoritative sources to cite.
• What tools can help with citation management? Answer: Several tools can help with citation management, including reference managers like Zotero, EndNote, Mendeley, and citation generators like Citation Machine or BibMe. These tools help organize your sources, generate citations in various styles, and ensure consistency throughout your work.

References:

American Psychological Association (APA) . (n.d.). Https://Www.Apa.Org. Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://www.apa.org

• Citation And Reference In Essay Writing: Why and When To Use – THISDAYLIVE . (n.d.). Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2024/02/06/citation-and-reference-in-essay-writing-why-and-when-to-use/
• Clerc, S. (n.d.). SCSU Hilton C. Buley Library: MLA Style Guide Eighth Edition: Core Elements of a Citation . Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://libguides.southernct.edu/mla/core
• MLA Home . (n.d.). Modern Language Association. Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://www.mla.org/
• Reeves, R. (n.d.). Research Guides: Identifying Parts of a Citation: Why Citing Sources is Important . Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://guides.library.unk.edu/c.php?g=710678&p=5051044
• Space, T. S. (n.d.). Referencing and avoiding plagiarism . Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://www.thestudyspace.com/page/referencing-and-avoiding-plagiarism/
• Staff, R. (n.d.). LibGuides: Citing Sources: What Information Should be Cited and Why? Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://holyfamily.libguides.com/c.php?g=610218&p=4236600
• The Chicago Manual of Style, 18th Edition . (n.d.). The Chicago Manual of Style Online. Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org
• Warning: When You Must Cite . (2015, June 25). Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning. https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/undergraduates/using-sources/understanding-and-avoiding-plagiarism/warning-when-you-must-cite

Why is Referencing Important? | UNSW Current Students . (n.d.). Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://www.student.unsw.edu.au/why-referencing-important

Related Posts

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• Academic writing
• A step-by-step guide to the writing process

The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips

Published on April 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 8, 2023.

Good academic writing requires effective planning, drafting, and revision.

The writing process looks different for everyone, but there are five basic steps that will help you structure your time when writing any kind of text.

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Table of contents

Step 1: prewriting, step 2: planning and outlining, step 3: writing a first draft, step 4: redrafting and revising, step 5: editing and proofreading, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the writing process.

Before you start writing, you need to decide exactly what you’ll write about and do the necessary research.

Coming up with a topic

If you have to come up with your own topic for an assignment, think of what you’ve covered in class— is there a particular area that intrigued, interested, or even confused you? Topics that left you with additional questions are perfect, as these are questions you can explore in your writing.

The scope depends on what type of text you’re writing—for example, an essay or a research paper will be less in-depth than a dissertation topic . Don’t pick anything too ambitious to cover within the word count, or too limited for you to find much to say.

Narrow down your idea to a specific argument or question. For example, an appropriate topic for an essay might be narrowed down like this:

Doing the research

Once you know your topic, it’s time to search for relevant sources and gather the information you need. This process varies according to your field of study and the scope of the assignment. It might involve:

• Searching for primary and secondary sources .
• Reading the relevant texts closely (e.g. for literary analysis ).
• Collecting data using relevant research methods (e.g. experiments , interviews or surveys )

From a writing perspective, the important thing is to take plenty of notes while you do the research. Keep track of the titles, authors, publication dates, and relevant quotations from your sources; the data you gathered; and your initial analysis or interpretation of the questions you’re addressing.

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Especially in academic writing , it’s important to use a logical structure to convey information effectively. It’s far better to plan this out in advance than to try to work out your structure once you’ve already begun writing.

Creating an essay outline is a useful way to plan out your structure before you start writing. This should help you work out the main ideas you want to focus on and how you’ll organize them. The outline doesn’t have to be final—it’s okay if your structure changes throughout the writing process.

Use bullet points or numbering to make your structure clear at a glance. Even for a short text that won’t use headings, it’s useful to summarize what you’ll discuss in each paragraph.

An outline for a literary analysis essay might look something like this:

• Describe the theatricality of Austen’s works
• Outline the role theater plays in Mansfield Park
• Introduce the research question: How does Austen use theater to express the characters’ morality in Mansfield Park ?
• Discuss Austen’s depiction of the performance at the end of the first volume
• Discuss how Sir Bertram reacts to the acting scheme
• Introduce Austen’s use of stage direction–like details during dialogue
• Explore how these are deployed to show the characters’ self-absorption
• Discuss Austen’s description of Maria and Julia’s relationship as polite but affectionless
• Compare Mrs. Norris’s self-conceit as charitable despite her idleness
• Summarize the three themes: The acting scheme, stage directions, and the performance of morals
• Answer the research question
• Indicate areas for further study

Once you have a clear idea of your structure, it’s time to produce a full first draft.

This process can be quite non-linear. For example, it’s reasonable to begin writing with the main body of the text, saving the introduction for later once you have a clearer idea of the text you’re introducing.

To give structure to your writing, use your outline as a framework. Make sure that each paragraph has a clear central focus that relates to your overall argument.

Hover over the parts of the example, from a literary analysis essay on Mansfield Park , to see how a paragraph is constructed.

The character of Mrs. Norris provides another example of the performance of morals in Mansfield Park . Early in the novel, she is described in scathing terms as one who knows “how to dictate liberality to others: but her love of money was equal to her love of directing” (p. 7). This hypocrisy does not interfere with her self-conceit as “the most liberal-minded sister and aunt in the world” (p. 7). Mrs. Norris is strongly concerned with appearing charitable, but unwilling to make any personal sacrifices to accomplish this. Instead, she stage-manages the charitable actions of others, never acknowledging that her schemes do not put her own time or money on the line. In this way, Austen again shows us a character whose morally upright behavior is fundamentally a performance—for whom the goal of doing good is less important than the goal of seeming good.

When you move onto a different topic, start a new paragraph. Use appropriate transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas.

The goal at this stage is to get a draft completed, not to make everything perfect as you go along. Once you have a full draft in front of you, you’ll have a clearer idea of where improvement is needed.

Give yourself a first draft deadline that leaves you a reasonable length of time to revise, edit, and proofread before the final deadline. For a longer text like a dissertation, you and your supervisor might agree on deadlines for individual chapters.

Now it’s time to look critically at your first draft and find potential areas for improvement. Redrafting means substantially adding or removing content, while revising involves making changes to structure and reformulating arguments.

Evaluating the first draft

It can be difficult to look objectively at your own writing. Your perspective might be positively or negatively biased—especially if you try to assess your work shortly after finishing it.

It’s best to leave your work alone for at least a day or two after completing the first draft. Come back after a break to evaluate it with fresh eyes; you’ll spot things you wouldn’t have otherwise.

When evaluating your writing at this stage, you’re mainly looking for larger issues such as changes to your arguments or structure. Starting with bigger concerns saves you time—there’s no point perfecting the grammar of something you end up cutting out anyway.

Right now, you’re looking for:

• Arguments that are unclear or illogical.
• Areas where information would be better presented in a different order.
• Passages where additional information or explanation is needed.
• Passages that are irrelevant to your overall argument.

For example, in our paper on Mansfield Park , we might realize the argument would be stronger with more direct consideration of the protagonist Fanny Price, and decide to try to find space for this in paragraph IV.

For some assignments, you’ll receive feedback on your first draft from a supervisor or peer. Be sure to pay close attention to what they tell you, as their advice will usually give you a clearer sense of which aspects of your text need improvement.

Redrafting and revising

Once you’ve decided where changes are needed, make the big changes first, as these are likely to have knock-on effects on the rest. Depending on what your text needs, this step might involve:

• Making changes to your overall argument.
• Reordering the text.
• Cutting parts of the text.
• Adding new text.

You can go back and forth between writing, redrafting and revising several times until you have a final draft that you’re happy with.

Think about what changes you can realistically accomplish in the time you have. If you are running low on time, you don’t want to leave your text in a messy state halfway through redrafting, so make sure to prioritize the most important changes.

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Editing focuses on local concerns like clarity and sentence structure. Proofreading involves reading the text closely to remove typos and ensure stylistic consistency. You can check all your drafts and texts in minutes with an AI proofreader .

Editing for grammar and clarity

When editing, you want to ensure your text is clear, concise, and grammatically correct. You’re looking out for:

• Grammatical errors.
• Ambiguous phrasings.
• Redundancy and repetition .

In your initial draft, it’s common to end up with a lot of sentences that are poorly formulated. Look critically at where your meaning could be conveyed in a more effective way or in fewer words, and watch out for common sentence structure mistakes like run-on sentences and sentence fragments:

• Austen’s style is frequently humorous, her characters are often described as “witty.” Although this is less true of Mansfield Park .
• Austen’s style is frequently humorous. Her characters are often described as “witty,” although this is less true of Mansfield Park .

To make your sentences run smoothly, you can always use a paraphrasing tool to rewrite them in a clearer way.

Proofreading for small mistakes and typos

When proofreading, first look out for typos in your text:

• Spelling errors.
• Missing words.
• Confused word choices .
• Punctuation errors .
• Missing or excess spaces.

Use a grammar checker , but be sure to do another manual check after. Read through your text line by line, watching out for problem areas highlighted by the software but also for any other issues it might have missed.

For example, in the following phrase we notice several errors:

• Mary Crawfords character is a complicate one and her relationships with Fanny and Edmund undergoes several transformations through out the novel.
• Mary Crawford’s character is a complicated one, and her relationships with both Fanny and Edmund undergo several transformations throughout the novel.

Proofreading for stylistic consistency

There are several issues in academic writing where you can choose between multiple different standards. For example:

• Whether you use the serial comma .
• Whether you use American or British spellings and punctuation (you can use a punctuation checker for this).
• Where you use numerals vs. words for numbers.
• How you capitalize your titles and headings.

Unless you’re given specific guidance on these issues, it’s your choice which standards you follow. The important thing is to consistently follow one standard for each issue. For example, don’t use a mixture of American and British spellings in your paper.

Additionally, you will probably be provided with specific guidelines for issues related to format (how your text is presented on the page) and citations (how you acknowledge your sources). Always follow these instructions carefully.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy
• Deep learning
• Generative AI
• Machine learning
• Reinforcement learning
• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

 (AI) Tools

• Grammar Checker
• Paraphrasing Tool
• Text Summarizer
• AI Detector
• Plagiarism Checker
• Citation Generator

Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .

• Revising is making structural and logical changes to your text—reformulating arguments and reordering information.
• Editing refers to making more local changes to things like sentence structure and phrasing to make sure your meaning is conveyed clearly and concisely.
• Proofreading involves looking at the text closely, line by line, to spot any typos and issues with consistency and correct them.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.

If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.

To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.

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Caulfield, J. (2023, December 08). The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved September 1, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/writing-process/

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