essay topics for environmental ethics

Environmental Ethics Research Paper Topics

This comprehensive guide to environmental ethics research paper topics is designed to provide students and researchers with a wide array of subjects in the field of environmental ethics. The topics are carefully categorized into ten distinct areas, each offering ten unique research themes. This guide also provides expert advice on how to select a topic and how to write a compelling research paper on environmental ethics. Furthermore, it introduces iResearchNet’s professional writing services, which can assist students in crafting custom research papers on any given topic.

100 Environmental Ethics Research Paper Topics

The field of environmental ethics is a vast and diverse area of study that intersects with various disciplines such as philosophy, ecology, and sociology. It explores the moral relationship of human beings to the environment and its non-human contents. Here, we provide a comprehensive list of environmental ethics research paper topics, divided into ten categories, each with ten topics.

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Theoretical Foundations of Environmental Ethics

• The role of anthropocentrism in environmental ethics.
• Biocentrism and its implications for environmental conservation.
• Ecocentrism: A holistic approach to environmental ethics.
• Deep ecology versus shallow ecology: A comparative study.
• The concept of intrinsic value in nature.
• The Gaia hypothesis and its ethical implications.
• Ecofeminism: A critical analysis.
• The role of religion in shaping environmental ethics.
• The concept of environmental justice.
• The principle of sustainability in environmental ethics.

Environmental Ethics and Wildlife Conservation

• Ethical considerations in wildlife conservation.
• The moral status of animals in environmental ethics.
• The ethics of hunting: A critical analysis.
• The ethical implications of animal captivity.
• The role of zoos and wildlife parks in conservation: An ethical perspective.
• The ethics of animal experimentation.
• The ethical implications of species extinction.
• The ethics of biodiversity conservation.
• The ethical dimensions of wildlife trade.
• The ethics of animal rights versus conservation needs.

Environmental Ethics and Climate Change

• The ethical implications of climate change.
• The ethics of climate change mitigation strategies.
• The ethical dimensions of climate change adaptation.
• The concept of climate justice.
• The ethics of intergenerational equity in the context of climate change.
• The ethical implications of geoengineering solutions to climate change.
• The ethics of carbon trading.
• The moral responsibility of developed nations in climate change.
• The ethical dimensions of climate change denial.
• The ethics of climate change communication.

Environmental Ethics and Pollution

• The ethical implications of pollution.
• The ethics of plastic pollution.
• The ethical dimensions of air pollution.
• The ethics of water pollution.
• The ethical implications of soil pollution.
• The ethics of noise pollution.
• The ethical dimensions of light pollution.
• The ethics of electronic waste.
• The ethical implications of nuclear pollution.
• The ethics of pollution control measures.

Environmental Ethics and Resource Management

• The ethical implications of resource extraction.
• The ethics of deforestation.
• The ethical dimensions of water management.
• The ethics of land use and land management.
• The ethical implications of overfishing.
• The ethics of agricultural practices.
• The ethical dimensions of mining activities.
• The ethics of waste management.
• The ethical implications of energy production and use.
• The ethics of sustainable resource management.

Environmental Ethics and Technology

• The ethical implications of green technology.
• The ethics of genetic engineering in the context of environmental conservation.
• The ethical dimensions of nanotechnology.
• The ethics of biotechnology in agriculture.
• The ethical implications of geoengineering.
• The ethics of renewable energy technologies.
• The ethical dimensions of information technology and the environment.
• The ethics of technology and waste management.
• The ethical implications of technology in wildlife conservation.
• The ethics of technology in climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Environmental Ethics and Urbanization

• The ethical implications of urbanization.
• The ethics of urban sprawl.
• Theethical dimensions of urban green spaces.
• The ethics of urban planning and design.
• The ethical implications of urban agriculture.
• The ethics of urban waste management.
• The ethical dimensions of urban water management.
• The ethics of urban air quality.
• The ethical implications of urban biodiversity.
• The ethics of sustainable urban development.

Environmental Ethics and Food Production

• The ethical implications of industrial agriculture.
• The ethics of organic farming.
• The ethical dimensions of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
• The ethics of animal farming and animal rights.
• The ethical implications of aquaculture.
• The ethics of food waste.
• The ethical dimensions of food labeling.
• The ethics of food security and food sovereignty.
• The ethical implications of dietary choices.
• The ethics of sustainable food systems.

Environmental Ethics and Human Health

• The ethical implications of environmental health hazards.
• The ethics of environmental health policies.
• The ethical dimensions of environmental diseases.
• The ethics of health and environmental justice.
• The ethical implications of environmental toxins and human health.
• The ethics of occupational health and safety in environmentally hazardous industries.
• The ethical dimensions of climate change and human health.
• The ethics of health impacts of pollution.
• The ethical implications of the health-environment nexus.
• The ethics of health in the Anthropocene.

Environmental Ethics and Environmental Education

• The ethical implications of environmental education.
• The ethics of environmental literacy.
• The ethical dimensions of environmental awareness campaigns.
• The ethics of environmental activism.
• The ethical implications of environmental values in education.
• The ethics of teaching sustainability.
• The ethical dimensions of environmental justice education.
• The ethics of environmental education in policy-making.
• The ethical implications of youth involvement in environmental issues.
• The ethics of interdisciplinary approaches in environmental education.

In conclusion, the field of environmental ethics offers a rich array of topics for research papers. These topics span a wide range of issues, from theoretical foundations to practical applications, and from local to global scales. They invite us to critically examine our relationship with the environment and to explore new ways of thinking and acting that promote environmental sustainability and justice.

Environmental Ethics Research Guide

Environmental ethics plays a critical role in our understanding of environmental issues and the development of sustainable solutions. As students studying environmental science, it is essential to delve into the realm of environmental ethics and explore its significance in shaping our relationship with the natural world. This page aims to provide a comprehensive guide on environmental ethics research paper topics, helping you navigate the complexities of ethical considerations in environmental decision-making.

In today’s world, environmental challenges are more pressing than ever before. From climate change and deforestation to pollution and resource depletion, our planet faces numerous threats that require urgent attention. However, addressing these issues goes beyond scientific and technical solutions. It requires an ethical framework that guides our choices and actions, taking into account the moral and philosophical dimensions of environmental problems.

The field of environmental ethics explores the moral values and principles that inform our relationship with nature, the rights of non-human beings, and the responsibilities we hold towards future generations. By examining different ethical theories and perspectives, we gain insights into the ethical dilemmas surrounding environmental issues and can develop informed and ethical solutions.

This page serves as a valuable resource for students like you who are tasked with writing a research paper on environmental ethics. Whether you are new to the field or seeking inspiration for your next paper, the following sections will provide a wealth of information, guidance, and topic ideas to help you embark on a successful research journey.

Throughout this page, we will explore various aspects of environmental ethics, including different ethical frameworks, the concept of environmental justice, the ethics of sustainability, and the ethical considerations associated with specific environmental challenges. By delving into these environmental ethics research paper topics, you will develop a deeper understanding of the ethical dimensions of environmental science and be better equipped to critically analyze and contribute to the ongoing discourse in the field.

It is important to note that environmental ethics is a dynamic field with evolving perspectives and ongoing debates. As you navigate through the research paper topics and expert advice provided on this page, keep in mind that the goal is not to arrive at definitive answers but to foster critical thinking, engage in ethical deliberation, and contribute to the growing body of knowledge in environmental ethics.

Choosing an Environmental Ethics Topic

Choosing a compelling and relevant research topic is essential for crafting a successful environmental ethics research paper. With the wide range of issues and perspectives within the field, it can be overwhelming to narrow down your focus. To help you navigate this process, we have compiled ten expert tips to guide you in choosing environmental ethics research paper topics that are engaging, thought-provoking, and academically valuable.

• Identify your area of interest : Begin by reflecting on your personal interests and passions within the field of environmental ethics. Consider the ethical dimensions of specific environmental issues that resonate with you. This will help you stay motivated and engaged throughout your research and writing process.
• Explore current debates and controversies : Stay updated on current debates and controversies in environmental ethics. Scan recent literature, academic journals, and reputable online sources to identify topics that are generating significant discussion. Engaging with these debates can provide a fresh perspective and contribute to the ongoing discourse in the field.
• Conduct preliminary research : Before finalizing a topic, conduct preliminary research to ensure that there is sufficient information and scholarly resources available. Explore academic databases, books, and reputable websites to gauge the availability of relevant literature and sources for your chosen topic.
• Consider interdisciplinary approaches : Environmental ethics is a multidisciplinary field that intersects with various disciplines, including philosophy, sociology, ecology, law, and economics. Consider incorporating interdisciplinary perspectives into your research topic to provide a comprehensive analysis and broaden the scope of your paper.
• Narrow down your focus : Once you have identified a general area of interest, narrow down your focus by refining your research question. Clearly define the specific aspect of environmental ethics you wish to explore and formulate a concise and focused research question that guides your investigation.
• Consult with your instructor or advisor : Seek guidance from your instructor or advisor to ensure that your chosen topic aligns with the objectives and requirements of your research paper. They can provide valuable insights and help you refine your topic based on their expertise.
• Consider the practical implications : Environmental ethics research often addresses real-world challenges and policy implications. Consider topics that have practical relevance and examine the ethical considerations associated with proposed solutions or policy frameworks.
• Engage with diverse perspectives : Environmental ethics is a field characterized by diverse perspectives and theories. Choose a topic that allows you to explore different ethical frameworks, cultural perspectives, and stakeholder viewpoints. This will help you develop a well-rounded understanding of the topic and foster critical thinking.
• Identify gaps in the literature : Conduct a literature review to identify gaps or areas that have not been extensively explored within the realm of environmental ethics. Select a topic that fills these gaps and contributes to the existing knowledge base. This will enable you to make a unique and valuable contribution to the field.
• Reflect on personal and societal relevance : Finally, consider the personal and societal relevance of your chosen topic. Reflect on how it connects with broader environmental concerns, social justice issues, and the well-being of communities and ecosystems. Choosing a topic that resonates with these broader contexts will make your research more impactful and meaningful.

By following these expert tips, you can confidently select an environmental ethics research paper topic that aligns with your interests, engages with relevant debates, and contributes to the ongoing discourse in the field. Remember to remain open-minded, adaptable, and willing to refine your topic as you delve deeper into the research process.

How to Write an Environmental Ethics Research Paper

Writing an environmental ethics research paper requires careful planning, critical thinking, and effective communication of your ideas. Whether you are exploring ethical dimensions of climate change, biodiversity conservation, or environmental justice, the following ten tips will guide you in crafting a compelling and well-structured research paper in the field of environmental ethics.

• Understand the scope and purpose : Familiarize yourself with the scope and purpose of environmental ethics as a discipline. Gain a comprehensive understanding of the key concepts, theories, and ethical frameworks that underpin the field. This will provide a solid foundation for your research and analysis.
• Develop a clear research question : Formulate a clear and concise research question that addresses the ethical dimensions of your chosen environmental issue. The research question should be specific, focused, and provide a framework for your investigation.
• Conduct a thorough literature review : Begin by conducting a comprehensive literature review to understand the existing body of knowledge on your research topic. Explore relevant scholarly articles, books, and academic journals to gain insights into the different perspectives, debates, and theoretical frameworks within the field of environmental ethics.
• Analyze and evaluate different ethical theories : Environmental ethics encompasses a wide range of ethical theories, including anthropocentrism, biocentrism, and ecocentrism. Analyze and evaluate these theories in the context of your research question. Consider their strengths, weaknesses, and applicability to the environmental issue you are examining.
• Collect and analyze empirical data : Depending on the nature of your research, collect and analyze empirical data to support your arguments. This may involve conducting surveys, interviews, or case studies to gather firsthand information. Analyze the data using appropriate statistical or qualitative methods to derive meaningful insights.
• Consider stakeholder perspectives : Environmental ethics often involves considering the perspectives of different stakeholders, including communities, policymakers, industry representatives, and environmental organizations. Engage with these diverse viewpoints to gain a holistic understanding of the ethical challenges and potential solutions related to your research topic.
• Address counterarguments : Anticipate and address counterarguments to your research findings or ethical positions. Engage with opposing viewpoints and demonstrate a nuanced understanding of the complexities surrounding your chosen environmental issue. This will strengthen your argument and showcase your ability to critically evaluate multiple perspectives.
• Organize your paper effectively : Structure your research paper in a logical and organized manner. Begin with an introduction that provides background information, states the research question, and outlines the significance of your study. Use clear headings and subheadings to organize your content, and ensure a smooth flow between sections.
• Support your arguments with evidence : Back up your arguments and claims with credible evidence and scholarly sources. Use a combination of empirical data, case studies, and theoretical frameworks to support your analysis. Properly cite all your sources following the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Conclude with a strong summary and reflection : In your conclusion, summarize the key findings of your research and restate the importance of your research question. Reflect on the implications of your study for environmental ethics, policy, or practice. Highlight the broader significance of your research and suggest avenues for future research.

By following these ten tips, you will be well-equipped to write an impactful environmental ethics research paper. Remember to maintain a critical and ethical stance throughout your writing, engage with the complexities of the environmental issues at hand, and make connections between theory and practice.

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100 Environment Essay Topics That Will Inspire Your Eco-Conscious Mind

Table of contents

• 1 Interesting Environment Topic Ideas
• 2 Easy Environment Essay Topics
• 3 Environmental Research Topics on Climate Change
• 4 Environmental Research Topics on Ecology
• 5 Sustainability Topics for an Essay
• 6 Topics about Renewable Energy
• 7 Topics on Greenhouse Effect
• 8 Global Warming Essay Topics
• 9 Pollution Essay Topics
• 10 Ideas for Environmental Essay
• 11 Conclusion

Interesting Environment Topic Ideas

If you are in the mood for considering complicated and challenging topics, you’ll like the essay topics on environmental issues from this list. You can dive into the subject and broaden your horizons. Every topic on the environment is relevant, and some of them are time-consuming. So if you’re afraid of missing your deadline and wondering who can write my paper , be attentive to choose the best service. Any subject about environmental issues needs appropriate investigations and should be well-disclosed.

• The Devastating Effects of Plastic Pollution on Our Oceans
• From Forests to Farms: The Impact of Deforestation on Climate Change
• A Greener Future: The Benefits of Renewable Energy Sources
• The Secret Life of Bees: How Their Decline Affects Our Ecosystems
• The Dark Side of Fast Fashion: The Environmental Cost of Cheap Clothes
• Food Waste: An Invisible Environmental Crisis
• The Environmental Impact of Transportation: From Cars to Planes
• How Urbanization is Changing the Landscape of Our Cities
• Water Crisis: The Importance of Conserving Our Most Precious Resource
• The Great Barrier Reef: Can We Save One of the World’s Natural Wonders?

Easy Environment Essay Topics

There are easy but equally important environmental essay topics. Share your valuable thoughts about climate change avoiding confusing topics. You may also use one of them if you don’t have enough time for investigation. In this case, you can find a reliable paper writing service to get your well-written essay and save your time. Ponder the environmental problems you are worried about, it may be pollution or the ways of recycling. Then check the list of topics and start your essay .

• 5 Simple Ways to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint Today
• How Composting Can Help Save the Planet
• The Power of Plant-Based Diets: How Eating Less Meat Can Help the Environment
• The Benefits of Biking: A Fun and Eco-Friendly Alternative to Driving
• How to Be Environmentally Conscious Without Breaking the Bank
• The Dangers of Single-Use Plastics: What You Need to Know
• Saving Energy at Home: Tips and Tricks for Lowering Your Utility Bills and Helping the Environment
• How to Start a Community Garden: Bringing People Together While Helping the Planet
• The Benefits of Using Natural Cleaners
• The Impact of Electronic Waste: How to Properly Dispose of Your Old Electronics

Environmental Research Topics on Climate Change

One of the global environmental issues of the 21st century is climate change, and students tend to investigate it in their essays. One of the problems caused by climate change is the reduction of biodiversity. Use one of our environment essay topics to explain the reasons for this phenomenon and possible solutions. Write the arguments to highlight the necessity of environmental protection.

• The Impact of Climate Change on Arctic Wildlife: A Study of Polar Bears and Their Habitat
• Rising Sea Levels: The Effects on Coastal Communities and Infrastructure
• The Role of Forests in Climate Change Mitigation: A Case Study of the Amazon Rainforest
• The Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Productivity: A Study of Drought-Prone Regions
• The Consequences of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Marine Life
• The Effect of Climate Change on Human Health: A Study of Air Quality and Heat Waves
• The Impact of Climate Change on Indigenous Communities: A Case Study of Arctic and Subarctic Regions
• The Role of Renewable Energy Sources in Mitigating Climate Change: A Comparative Analysis of Solar and Wind Power
• The Economic Impact of Climate Change: A Study of Adaptation and Mitigation Costs
• The Potential of Carbon Capture and Storage Technologies in Mitigating Climate Change: An Assessment of Current and Future Applications

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Environmental Research Topics on Ecology

In this category, we’ve gathered essential topics on environmental issues. Use any to do your research about the conservation of biodiversity. Present its role in the food chain and the possible environmental consequences of the violation of this process. Try to explore different approaches in your academic paper. It may become one of your most successful environmental science projects . Researchers are doing their best to resolve existing problems. So, with your essay, you can make a contribution to environmental science.

• The Impact of Invasive Species on Native Ecosystems: A Case Study of the Burmese Python in the Florida Everglades
• The Role of Keystone Species in Ecosystem Functioning: A Study of Wolves in Yellowstone National Park
• The Effect of Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity: A Study of Tropical Forests
• The Importance of Pollinators in Ecosystem Services: A Study of Bees and Their Role in Crop Pollination
• The Impact of Climate Change on Forest Ecosystems: A Study of Temperate and Boreal Forests
• The Effect of Human Disturbance on Marine Ecosystems: A Study of Coral Reefs and Coastal Habitats
• The Role of Wetlands in Water Quality and Flood Control: A Study of Marshes and Swamps
• The Impact of Overfishing on Marine Ecosystems: A Case Study of Sharks and Their Importance in Ocean Food Webs
• The Role of Ecological Restoration in Ecosystem Recovery: A Study of Dam Removal and River Restoration Projects
• The Effect of Pollution on Aquatic Ecosystems: A Study of Chemical Contamination and Its Effects on Fish and Other Aquatic Life

Sustainability Topics for an Essay

The best way of saving our home is its everyday protection. There you can focus on the topics on environmental issues related to sustainability and its effectiveness. Write your essay on environment about the benefits of making environmental conservation our daily routine. Offer the ways of its implementation in variable areas. With this list of environment essay topics, you’ll be a part of innovation.

• The Role of Sustainable Agriculture in Feeding a Growing Population
• he Importance of Sustainable Packaging: How to Reduce Waste and Carbon Footprint
• Green Building: The Benefits of Sustainable Design and Construction
• The Impact of Sustainable Tourism on Local Communities and the Environment
• The Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Promoting Sustainability
• The Benefits of Sustainable Transportation: A Study of Electric Cars and Public Transit Systems
• The Power of Sustainable Investing: How to Invest Responsibly for a Better Future
• Sustainable Fashion: How to Shop Responsibly and Reduce Environmental Impact
• Sustainable Energy Solutions for a Clean Future: The Pros and Cons of Renewable Energy Sources
• The Importance of Sustainable Water Management: How to Conserve and Protect Our Most Precious Resource

Topics about Renewable Energy

It’s no secret that natural resources are being depleted. It’s an occasion to think about ways of replacing them. Think about possible ways to reduce energy consumption and focus on renewable resources. Reflect on how humanity can stabilize climate issues and reduce the level of pollution with renewable energy. Share your opinion about energy conservation, the options for its replacement, and the further positive impact of such actions on climate. Check the list to compose your argumentative essay on conservation of nature.

• The Pros and Cons of Solar Energy: A Comprehensive Analysis
• The Potential of Wind Energy: A Case Study of the United States and Europe
• The Future of Hydrogen Fuel: A Study of Its Potential as a Renewable Energy Source
• The Role of Geothermal Energy in Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• The Benefits and Challenges of Biomass Energy: A Study of Biofuels and Biopower
• The Power of Tidal Energy: A Study of Its Potential in Coastal Regions
• The Impact of Renewable Energy on Rural Communities: A Case Study of Small-Scale Projects
• The Role of Government Policies in Promoting Renewable Energy: A Comparative Analysis
• The Potential of Energy Storage Technologies in Facilitating the Integration of Renewable Energy
• The Benefits of Distributed Generation: A Study of Rooftop Solar and Small Wind Turbines

Topics on Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the result of devastating human activities. The main consequences are the melting of glaciers, lack of drinking water in some regions, and climate change. Look through the environment essay topics that we have collected. Describe the reasons and further possible changes on earth, consult the articles of climate scientists, and make your arguments.

• The Science of Greenhouse Effect: How Does It Work and What Are Its Effects on the Climate?
• The Role of Carbon Dioxide in the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Its Sources and Sinks
• The Impact of Methane on the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Its Sources and Consequences
• The Role of Water Vapor in the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Its Effects on Climate Feedback
• The Effect of Deforestation on the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of the Loss of Carbon Sinks
• The Impact of Agriculture on the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Livestock and Crop Production
• The Potential of Carbon Capture and Storage Technologies in Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• The Role of Government Policies in Addressing the Greenhouse Effect: A Comparative Analysis
• The Impact of Human Activity on the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Fossil Fuel Use and Land Use Change
• The Future of the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Climate Projections and Mitigation Strategies

Global Warming Essay Topics

One of the most common environmental issues of our generation is global warming. Natural disasters, abnormal weather changes, drought, and extreme temperatures aren’t the only consequences of global warming.

Due to the relevance of this subject, many students opt for this theme. We offer global warming essay samples to facilitate the process of writing for you. Check them to compose the best academic paper and receive the highest grade.

• Global Warming and the Arctic: How Melting Ice Impacts the Planet
• The Impact of Global Warming on Extreme Weather Events: A Study of Heat Waves and Hurricanes
• The Effects of Global Warming on Biodiversity: A Study of Climate Change and Species Extinction
• The Role of Human Activities in Causing Global Warming: A Study of Carbon Emissions and Land Use Change
• The Impact of Global Warming on Agriculture: A Study of Crop Yields and Food Security
• The Consequences of Global Warming on Ocean Acidification: A Study of Its Effects on Marine Life
• The Role of International Agreements in Addressing Global Warming: A Comparative Analysis
• The Potential of Renewable Energy in Reducing Global Warming: A Study of Clean Energy Technologies
• The Impact of Global Warming on Public Health: A Study of Heat-Related Illnesses and Disease Outbreaks
• The Future of Global Warming: A Study of Climate Projections and Adaptation Strategies

Pollution Essay Topics

Not only nature but also every person suffers from pollution. Air pollution, for instance, causes serious diseases, sometimes with lethal outcomes. One of the causative agents of water, air pollution, and spoiling soil are pollutants. Let us present youwith a few options of thought-provoking environmental issues for your essay.

• Air Pollution and Its Consequences: A Study of the Impact on Human Health
• The Effects of Water Pollution on Marine Ecosystems: A Study of Plastic Pollution and Overfishing
• The Role of Agricultural Practices in Causing Soil Pollution: A Study of Pesticides and Fertilizers
• The Impact of Industrial Pollution on Local Communities: A Study of Toxic Waste and Environmental Justice
• The Effect of Noise Pollution on Human Health and Well-being: A Study of Urban Environments
• The Role of Government Policies in Addressing Pollution: A Comparative Analysis
• The Consequences of Light Pollution on Wildlife and Ecosystems: A Study of Artificial Light at Night
• The Potential of Green Technologies in Reducing Pollution: A Study of Sustainable Production and Consumption
• The Impact of Indoor Pollution on Human Health: A Study of Household Chemicals and Poor Ventilation
• The Future of Pollution: A Study of Climate Change and Its Effects on Environmental Degradation

Ideas for Environmental Essay

Last but not least, top of environmental ideas and issues to reveal. By implementing these topics, you can generally speak about modern approaches and up-to-date scientific ideas. Think about the influence of the Government on ecological questions and some possible new projects. Share your opinion about clean tourism and transportation, or describe the model of an eco-friendly city. As you can see, in any of these subjects, you can reflect.

• The Urgency of Climate Action: Addressing the Environmental Crisis
• Sustainability: The Key to a Greener Future
• The Role of Government in Protecting the Environment
• The Environmental Impact of Transportation: Finding Solutions for Cleaner Travel
• The Power of Education in Environmental Awareness and Action
• The Ethics of Environmentalism: Balancing Human Needs and Nature’s Rights
• Wildfires, Floods, and Storms: The Increasing Frequency of Extreme Weather Events
• The Significance of Conservation and Preservation of Natural Resources for Future Generations.
• The Importance of Preserving Wetlands: A Critical Ecosystem
• Eco-Friendly Cities: Designing for Sustainable Living and Reducing Carbon Footprint.

Hope you’ve liked our selection of essay topics on environmental issues and managed to find the most appropriate one. There are plenty of problems that should be urgently resolved. In your academic paper, you can express and underline the necessity of actions on the part of every citizen. Describe new approaches and the ways of their implementation. By applying any topic from the list, you’ll definitely get the highest grade.

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• 140 Environmental Essay Topics

In any academic discipline, writing an essay on the environment can be a daunting task, no matter what the subject matter. Not only should students understand the complexities of the natural world, but they should also be able to communicate their ideas clearly in writing.

To combat the many challenges students can face when crafting an environmental essay, we’ve created this handy guide detailing how to write an environmental essay and even included 140 environmental essay topics to help get you started.

What Is an Environmental Essay?

An environmental essay is a type of paper where a student must choose a topic related to the environment and present an argument, opinion, or point of view about it. The primary purpose of this type of essay is to educate readers on a given issue and raise awareness about potential solutions.

How to Write an Environmental Essay: A Step-By-Step Guide

Step 1: choose an essay topic.

Before you can start writing your environmental essay, you need to choose a topic. Writing this type of paper may appear simple, but finding the right topic can be the most difficult part of the process. You’ll want to choose a topic that matches the essay format to ensure that the writing process is as smooth as possible.

For example, if you are tasked with writing an argumentative essay on a particular environmental issue, make sure that your topic can be argued. Avoid choosing a topic that is too broad or too specific, as this can make it challenging to develop a clear thesis statement and support your argument.

If your environmental essay is a compare and contrast essay, you’ll want to choose two topics that can be effectively compared and contrasted. And if your essay is a cause and effect essay, make sure that your topic focuses on causes or effects (or both) related to an environmental issue.

Step 2: Develop a Thesis Statement

Once you’ve chosen your essay topic, it’s time to develop a thesis statement. This is a sentence (or two) that summarizes your paper’s central argument. Specificity and focus are the hallmarks of a well-crafted thesis statement. In other words, it should be open to discussion and disagreement.

For example, a weak thesis statement might be something like:

“The environment is important.”

While this statement is true, it’s too general to be the focus of an entire essay. A stronger thesis statement might be:

“It’s time to stop polluting and other activities that harm the environment.”

This is a well-reasoned statement that expresses a firm opinion on the subject. It’s a good topic for an argumentative essay because it’s open to debate.

Step 3: Do Your Research

Now that you have a thesis statement, it’s time to do your research. This will involve finding sources (such as books, articles, and websites) that support your argument. When taking notes from your sources, be sure to write down the author, title, and publication date for each one. This will make it easier to create your Works Cited page later on.

As you’re doing your research, keep your essay format in mind. For example, if you are writing a five-paragraph essay, make sure that you have enough evidence to support your thesis statement and fill out each of the three body paragraphs.

Step 4: Write a Draft

Now it’s time to start writing your first draft. Begin by creating an outline that will help you organize your thoughts and ideas. Then, as you flesh out paragraphs from your outline, keep your audience in mind and make sure that your argument is clear and easy to follow.

Your draft should include an introduction, ideas for each body paragraph, and a conclusion. It is important to include your thesis statement in your introduction and to restate it in your conclusion.

Keep in mind that each body paragraph will always need a clear and interesting topic sentence, as well as a transition sentence that sums up the section. The following are some good examples of sentences that begin or transition:

“Even though many people do not consider the environment to be important, it is vital to our continued existence. It is impossible to survive without a healthy environment.

In order to see this, you can look at the…”

“Humans are clearly causing harm to the environment, but what are the root causes of this? I believe that the most important issue is….”

“We can all see the effects of environmental degradation, but persuading people to alter their behavior is a difficult task. While the…”

Each of these sentences offers a clear and concise argument that can be explored in more depth in the body paragraphs.

Step 5: Edit and Proofread

After writing your essay, it’s time to edit and proofread it. This is the process of making sure that there are no errors in your grammar or spelling. It’s also a good idea to read your essay aloud to make sure that it flows smoothly.

With the helpful guide above detailing the process of creating an environmental essay, you should now have no trouble writing on your topic of choice. However, if you’re still struggling to find the perfect topic, consider one of the following 140 environmental essay topics.

Environmental Essay Topics About Pollution

• The dangers of plastic pollution
• How climate change is affecting our environment
• The causes and effects of water pollution
• Air pollution in cities: a problem that needs to be addressed
• The issue of noise pollution and its effects on our health
• The dangers of pesticides and herbicides
• How deforestation is affecting our environment
• The problem of light pollution
• The dangers of nuclear waste
• How climate change is affecting our weather

Environmental Essay Topics About Conservation

• Why it’s important to conserve water
• How to reduce your carbon footprint
• Why recycling is important for the environment
• The importance of composting
• How to reduce your energy consumption
• Why it’s essential to protect endangered species
• How you can help the environment in your everyday life
• The benefits of organic farming
• Why it’s important to reduce, reuse, and recycle
• The dangers of mountaintop removal mining

Environmental Essay Topics About Animals

• How climate change is affecting animals in the wild
• The declining populations of bees and other pollinators
• How deforestation is affecting wildlife habitats
• The problem of invasive species
• The plight of endangered animals
• How zoos and aquariums are helping to conserve animals
• How to make your home more wildlife-friendly
• The importance of responsible pet ownership
• How to help local wildlife in your area
• Why it’s important to spay and neuter your pets

Environmental Essay Topics About Plants

• The importance of trees for the environment
• Newly discovered flora species with exciting medicinal benefits
• The benefits of permaculture
• How to make your garden more wildlife-friendly
• Why it’s important to plant native species
• How to help local flora in your area
• The specific compounds in herbicides that affect particular plant species
• The benefits of home gardening

Environmental Essay Topics About Sustainability

• What is sustainability?
• The importance of sustainable living
• How to live a more sustainable lifestyle
• The benefits of renewable energy sources
• The problems with nuclear energy
• Public transport v. carpooling: A comparative analysis
• How to make your home more energy-efficient
• The dangers of recycling the wrong items
• Socio-economic factors that make organic farming difficult for the masses
• How to shop sustainably

Environmental Essay Topics About Climate Change

• The causes of climate change
• The effects of climate change on the world’s economy
• The potential impact of climate change on our health
• The effect of climate change on plant and animal species
• Compare and contrast two factors driving climate change
• Analyze arguments for and against climate change
• The possible solutions to climate change
• The role of the individual in combating climate change

Environmental Essay Topics About Environmentalism

• What is environmentalism?
• The history of environmentalism
• The goals of environmentalism
• The different branches of environmentalism
• How you can get involved in environmentalism
• The benefits of environmentalism
• The challenges of environmentalism
• Environmentalism v. consumerism: A comparative analysis
• How environmentalism is affecting our economy
• The future of environmentalism

Environmental Essay Topics About History

• How the Industrial Revolution changed the environment
• The environmental impact of World War I
• The environmental impact of World War II
• How colonialism has impacted the environment
• The environmental effect of the American Civil War
• Reconstruction and its effect on the environment
• The Dust Bowl and its environmental effects
• The environmental impact of the Great Depression
• The environmental consequences of the Cold War
• How 9/11 has impacted the environment

Environmental Essay Topics About Natural Disasters

• The effects of floods on the environment
• The effect of droughts on the environment
• Wildfires: Causes and solutions
• Causes for the growing intensity of environmental storms
• How can we prepare for natural disasters?
• The role of the media in natural disaster relief
• The impact of natural disasters on our economy
• The importance of environmental protection during times of emergency
• Psychological effects of natural disasters
• Natural disasters and their effect on our infrastructure

Environmental Essay Topics About Alternative Resources

• Understanding the benefits of hemp production for paper
• The use of biogas as an environmentally friendly resource
• The pros and cons of nuclear power
• Why solar energy is the way of the future
• How wind turbines are changing the energy game
• The potential of geothermal energy
• The benefits and drawbacks of using tidal power
• The use of rainwater harvesting as an alternative water source
• How to make recycling more effective
• Why we should be using more recycled materials in the construction industry
• The benefits of using recycled materials in the automotive industry
• Why we should be using more alternative energy sources

Environmental Essay Topics About Education

• The role of education in environmental protection
• The importance of environmental education
• Environmental education programs that work
• The challenges of environmental education
• How to make environmental education more effective
• The future of environmental education

Environmental Essay Topics About Water

• Analyze the current state of the world’s water supply
• The importance of freshwater
• The global water crisis
• Solutions to the global water crisis
• How climate change is affecting our water supply
• How to conserve water
• The benefits of recycling wastewater
• The dangers of contaminated water
• The effect of oil spills on the environment
• The role of the individual in protecting water resources
• What we can do to stop water pollution
• How to make our sewage system more efficient

Environmental Essay Topics About Air Pollution

• The effects of air pollution on human health
• The causes of air pollution
• Solutions to air pollution
• How to reduce air pollution
• The impact of air pollution on the environment
• The effect of smog on the environment
• The benefits of reducing emissions
• How to make our cities more livable
• Reducing noise pollution
• Why we should be planting more trees

Environmental Essay Topics About Capitalism

• Compare the environmental effects of capitalism v. socialism
• The role of the government in environmental protection
• The impact of capitalism on the environment
• Is capitalism pushing us into environmental catastrophe?
• How does capitalism contribute to climate change?
• The pros and cons of green capitalism

Environmental Essay Topics About Technology

• The impact of technology on the environment
• The effect of social media on the environment
• The role of technology in environmental protection
• The environmental impact of Bitcoin

These 140 environmental essay topics will give students plenty of material to work with and should make writing the essay relatively easy.

Remember that these topics are just examples and can be altered or combined to better suit your needs. Once you have a topic in mind, follow the writing guide above to ensure you hand in a high-quality environmental essay that will earn you a good grade.

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612 Environment Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for interesting environment essay topics? This field is really exciting and worth studying!

🏆 Best Environment Essay Examples & Topics

👍 interesting environment topic ideas, 🎓 simple & easy environment essay titles, 🥇 easy environment essay topics, 📌 more topics on environment, 💡 good research topics about environment, ❓ environment essay questions.

Environment study field includes the issues of air, soil, and water pollution in the world, environment conservation, global climate change, urban ecology, and much more. In this article, we’ve gathered interesting environmental topics to write about. You might want to use one of them for your argumentative or persuasive essay, research paper, and presentation. There is also a number of great environment essay examples.

• Human Impact on Environment Another important action we perform to improve the situation with water is avoiding water pollution. It helps to keep the healthy and to reduce water pollution.
• The Effect of Technology on the Environment At the present moment, humankind has to resolve one of the most complicated dilemmas in its history, in particular how to achieve equilibrium between the needs of people or and the risks to the Earth.
• Mining and Its Impact on the Environment The purpose of this paper is to describe and discuss the effects of mining on the environment. This approach is sustainable and capable of reducing the dangers of mining.
• Protecting the Environment Protecting the environment is the act of taking care of natural resources and using them rationally to prevent annihilation and pollution.
• Electric Car and the Environment Other factors that contributed to the rise in demand of electric cars included a rise in oil prices and the need to conserve the environment by controlling the rate of greenhouse gas emission. One of […]
• Impacts of Overpopulation on the Environment Other primary causes of deforestation are construction of roads and residential houses to cater for the increasing population. As the natural habitats are destroyed, many wildlife species have been displaced and many died due to […]
• Impact of Science and Technology on the Natural Environment He “is constantly aware of the influence of nature in the form of the air he breathes, the water he drinks, the food he eats, and the flow of energy and information”.
• Human Behavior Effects on the Environment However, while some people are doing all they can to protect the environment, some are participating in activities that cause harm to the environment.
• Plastic vs Paper Bags: Production and Environment Though the production of plastic bags is frequently banned nowadays because of considerable harm to the animal world and marine life, the effects of this product on people and the environment seem to be less […]
• Overcrowding in Cities as Social & Environmental Problem Uncontrolled growth in the number of cities leads to the unchecked spread of pollution and the escalation of poverty. Atmospheric pollution is the most serious in cities, and its primary source is road transport, which […]
• Solution to Environmental Problems Environmental problems can therefore, be defined as the issues that result to the degradation of the environment because of the negative actions of human beings on the biophysical environment.
• Environmental Concerns in the Modern World Loss of biodiversity which is the decrease of species in ecosystems is also among the major concern faced by human race.
• Panama Canal and Its Environmental Impacts The construction of the Panama Canal has profound local environmental impacts which are based on socio-political management of the project that has demonstrated the infrastructural and ecological interdependence of its service as a global transportation […]
• Environmental Abuse and Its Adverse Effects The poor are often the most affected by environmental abuse, as they are the least able to protect themselves from the harmful effects of pollution and other environmental hazards.
• Bakhoor as a Harmful Incense for Health and Environment In this study, the researcher will conduct a scientific investigation to determine if, indeed, the use of Bahkoor in the United Arab Emirates is harmful to the environment.
• Globalization and Environment Essay While this is the case, citizens equally have a role to play in addressing the issue of globalization and climate change.
• Humanity and the Environment Many key factors affect the relationship between population and the environment within a particular region, including the number of inhabitants, their living standards and needs, technological advancements, the population’s attitude and philosophy towards nature, and […]
• Application of Geography (GIS) in Biotechnology in Field of Agriculture and Environment According to Wyland, “the ability of GIS to analyze and visualize agricultural environments and work flows has proved to be very beneficial to those involved in the farming industry”.
• Role of Non-Governmental Organisations in the Development of Sustainable Environmental Initiatives 1 The questions that currently ringer in people’s mind include why the NGOs are increasingly participating in environmental conservation projects, whether their initiatives are different from those they initiated in the past, and what exactly […]
• Fast Fashion’s Negative Impact on the Environment And this is the constant increase in production capacity, the low quality of the product, and the use of the labor of the population of developing countries.
• Overconsumption and Its Impact on the Environment The purpose is to examine the statement’s applicability in light of global mineral production and consumption, emphasizing the Canadian resource industry.
• Environmental Pollution and Its Effect on Health In climate change, due to air pollution, the main force to prevent environmental disasters need to change the approach to the production of substances from fossil fuels.
• Tourism – Environment Relationships Relationship between tourism and the environment There is a great dependency of tourism on the environment as described by Holden and Fennel’s book The Routledge Handbook of Tourism and Environment.
• Environment and Human Attitude Towards It Although the issue of attitude towards the environment can address most of the predicaments affecting humanity today, there are various actions and initiatives that can be undertaken to transform the situation and reduce people’s ecological […]
• Food Production and The Environment So all aspects of production – the cultivation and collection of plants, the maintenance of animals, the processing of products, their packaging, and transportation, affect the environment.
• The Effect of Plastic Water Bottles on the Environment In addition, the proponents of plastic use have argued that recycling is an effective method of mitigating the effects of plastic to the environment.
• Changing Environment and Human Impact Also, a changing environment can fundamentally contribute to the advancement of one’s sense of agency and leadership values as they make an epistemological logic of their learning environment at a younger age.
• McDonald’s: Human Rights and Environmental Sustainability Core values of the company One of the core values of the company is the respect for the fundamental rights of human beings.
• A Role of Human Beings in Protecting the Environment This attitude would be informed by the notion that humans are engaging in actions intended to transform the planet and the natural environment in order to suit them.
• Social, Economic and Environmental Challenges of Urbanization in Lagos However, the city’s rapid economic growth has led to high population density due to urbanization, creating social, economic, and environmental challenges the challenges include poverty, unemployment, sanitation, poor and inadequate transport infrastructure, congestion in the […]
• Importance of Recycling in Conservation of the Environment This piece of work looks at the different aspects associated with the process of recycling with much emphasis being given to the history of recycling and the facts associated with recycling process.
• Mining and Environment in Papua New Guinea In line with this commitment, the company implemented some of its strategies as indicated in the 2017 report on its operations in Chile.
• Urbanization and the Environment Due to urbanization, the number, the size, the kind and the compactness of cities, in addition to the effectiveness of their management of the environment are major concerns for attainment of the international sustainability.
• The Concept of Environmental Ethics Environmental ethics is concerned with the ethical relationship of human beings with the environment. Human beings must relate ethically with all other living organisms.
• E-Waste Management for the Local Environment The negative consequence of poor e-waste management, such as poor e-waste disposal, might cue the thoughts of the locals on the need to improve on their environmental awareness, thus joining the local environmental organization proposed.
• Poverty and the Environment The human population affects the environment negatively due to poverty resulting to environmental degradation and a cycle of poverty. Poverty and the environment are interlinked as poverty leads to degradation of the environment.
• Food Contamination and Adulteration: Environmental Problems, Food Habits, Way of Cultivation The purpose of this essay is to explain reasons for different kinds of food contamination and adulteration, harmful contaminants and adulterants and the diseases caused by the usage of those substances, prevention of food contamination […]
• Human-Environment Interdependence The problem of the environment change and the attitude of people to their own culture remains one of the most curious and urgent problems of modern time.
• Environmental Health Practice The WHO has executed the Global Environment Monitoring System – Food Contamination Monitoring and Assessment Program; this program informs government, non-governmental organizations and the public of various levels of contaminants in food and their effects […]
• Tourism and Environment In order to address the impacts of tourism on the environment, there is need to discuss how to replace the income that may be lost by implementing these measures. Environmental conservation in tourism is responsible […]
• Green Buildings and Environmental Sustainability This paper scrutinizes the characteristics that need to be possessed by a building for it to qualify as green coupled with questioning the capacity of the green movements across the globe to prescribe the construction […]
• Historical Relationship of the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos and How It Is Changing the Environment To begin with, the hunting practices of this native group, as well as the invasion of the European into their land, led to a great decline in the herds of the white-tailed deer in the […]
• Climate Change: Human Impact on the Environment This paper is an in-depth exploration of the effects that human activities have had on the environment, and the way the same is captured in the movie, The Eleventh Hour.
• Technology’s Role in Environmental Protection: The Ocean Cleanup Proponents of The Ocean Cleanup technology emphasize the fact that the devices have the capacity to effectively address oceanic plastic pollution.
• Environmental Protection and Waste Management The analysis also focuses on the intellectual behaviour of people regarding the environmental effects of waste. There is lack of strong basis for scientific findings and current guidance is causing the environmental challenges to become […]
• Construction Solutions in Saline Environment The researcher concluded that, indeed, salinity is one of the major causes of concrete disintegration and reduces the durability of buildings in saline environments.
• Wood and Its Importance for Environment Support Despite the intentions to use wood in a variety of ways without thinking about consequences, wood has to be considered as a helpful natural resource with many positive impacts on the environment, human health, and […]
• Impact of Emirates Airlines’ Operations on the Environment This makes it difficult for Emirates to develop policies that can have a direct influence on the environmental performance of the aircrafts.
• The Go-Green Programs: Saving the Environment Thus, the spirit of going green entails getting different people in the world to become aware of their decisions and activities that hurt the environment and the world at large.
• Fog and Its Effects on the Environment Depending on where and how the cooling effect takes place, the appearance and lasting duration of fog are affected and using this scientists have been able to categorize fog into various groups namely steaming fog, […]
• Organic Food Is Not a Cure for Environmental and Health Issues For instance, the same group of scientists claims that the moderate use of pesticides in organic agriculture is particularly important to consider while purchasing food.
• Environmental Crisis: People’s Relationship With Nature It is apparent that people have strived to steer off the blame for the environmental crisis that the world is facing, but they are the primary instigators of the problem.
• Environmental Policy Recommendation Furthermore, the policymakers need to be fully supported by the relevant agencies such as the ministry of environment to eliminate the existing and the projected obstacles that will prevent the full implementation of renewable energy […]
• Environmental Initiative: Reducing Plastic Waste In this presentation, it has been proposed to reduce the use of plastic products despite their wide popularity.
• The Nestle Company’s Environmental Sustainability Efforts What I like about Nestle’s environmental sustainability efforts: Nestle’s environmental sustainability efforts are concise and clear towards the company’s sustainability plans, that is, clear goals and objectives which are time bound. The company’s sustainability efforts […]
• Ancient Egypt: Geography and Environment Thus, the country’s main river occupies a central place in the peculiarities of the culture and development of Egypt. Being a transit region, Egypt also managed to absorb the influence of other areas and enrich […]
• E-Waste Management in the School Environment Recycling Recycling is one of the best ways of managing e-waste in the school. Specifically, the school should roll out a comprehensive campaign on the need to dump the e-wastes in these bins.
• Human Population and the Environment The fertility rate of a given species will depend on the life history characteristics of the species such as the number of reproductive periods in the lifetime of the species and the number of offspring […]
• Negative Impact on the Environment The fact that human activity and industrial development negatively affect the environment is not debated because the sad reality shows that oceans, soil, and air are polluted, and many species are endangered. Overall, the main […]
• Environment: Endangered Species Global warming also increases the risk of storms and drought, affecting food supply, which may cause death to both humans and animals.
• Environmental Assessment – Environmental Management Systems Additionally, a good EMS is usually structured in a manner that allows the identification of the impact of the organization on the environment.
• Technology Impact on Society and Environment It is possible to think of a variety of effects of technology. Availability of food also adds to the increase of people’s lifespan.
• Environmental Pollution: Causes and Consequences The essay will provide an overview of pollution and proffer solutions to combating pollution for a sustainable environment and health. Preventing pollution lowers the cost to the environment and the economy.
• Hairy Frog’s Adaptations and Environment It releases the claw by contracting the muscles in its rear feet and causing the claw to appear by piercing the frog’s skin.
• Importance of Environment Schlosberg believes that all the terms has only led to confusion with little help, he says “Yet all of these developments in justice theory, very little has been applied in environmental justice movement”.
• Environmental Psychology: The Impact of Interior Spaces on Childhood Development Nevertheless, with regards to children and their physical and cognitive development, environmental psychology addresses how experiences and exposures to various socio-environmental components affect children’s brain structure and their ability to control their emotions and behaviors.
• Tundra Biome: Environmental Impacts on Organisms The major difference between the alpine and the arctic tundra is that the alpine grounds are not covered by the permafrost.
• The Impact of Food Habits on the Environment The topic of this research is based on the issue of human-induced pollution or another environmental impact that affect the Earth and dietary approaches that can improve the situation.
• The Importance of Saving the Environment Toxins and contaminants pollute the environment and consequently interfere with the health of man and other animals. In other words, the future is guaranteed if the environment can be safeguarded and preserved at the current […]
• Environmental Impacts and Solutions: Solid Waste The objective of solid waste management is to reduce the amount of solid waste disposed on land and lead to the recovery of material from solid waste through various recycling efforts.
• Environmental Factors and Health Promotion: Indoor and Outdoor Air Pollution This presentation offers some information about the damage of air pollution and presents a health promotion plan with helpful resources and evidence from research.
• Eco-Labels: Environmental Issues in Business Overall, it is possible to argue that they can certainly lead to the improvement of environmental practices in many industries; however, this goal can be achieved only if these certificates are given by independent and […]
• Environmental Science & Technology In terms of architecture, the attempts of architects to decrease the impact on the environment right from the beginning is based on the desire to produce the item of the building components, continuing so in […]
• Environmental Impacts of Tourism The sphere of tourism is reliant on the environment of the sites in which the visitors are interested. The industry of invasive tourism continues to grow people are becoming more and more interested in traveling […]
• Wireless Power Transmission Implication for the Environment Designing the coils would form the trickiest task, since they have to be adjusted to the right frequency relying on the distance of the wire, the amount of loops in the wire and the capacitor.
• Environmental Pollution: Causes and Solutions The consequences that have risen as a result of neglecting to take care of the environment have now become a reality to the whole of mankind.
• Environmental Factors in the Emergence of the Egyptian Civilization Importantly, the physical composition of the land and natural resources alongside artifacts of ancient Egypt had a substantial impact on the country’s growth and development.
• Economic Growth and Environment Relation Although the relevance of the EKC and the focus on the stages of development as the important factors to speak about the relationship between the economic growth and environment are highly debatable issues, it is […]
• Population Growth and Its Impacts on the Environment High population growth is destructive to the society and the environment. In the US and Germany, the rate of population growth is estimated to be 0.
• Importance of Environmental Studies for Society It is upon the people to take care of the planet and understanding how human activities affect the environment is a critical step in that process.
• Relationship Between Population and the Environment The results revealed after the statistical analysis was performed that there is a negative relationship between the population increase and the emissions of carbon dioxide in the case of developed countries while on the other […]
• Eco-Friendly Food Product Production and Marketing The innovation of the airfryier has not only been a benefit to the health of the people but it also helps in the conservation of the environment.
• Food Web and Impact of Environmental Degradation In the course of this paper, ‘conservation’ refers to the preservation of natural resources that are, in any way, involved in the functioning of the food web.
• The Roles of Environmental Protection Agencies As a personal response to the argument; the individual’s involvement in environmental conservation is not enough as there is need for policy and regulation enforcement where he can only give advice to the federal government […]
• Ensuring Healthy and Clean Environment: Importance of Recycling Ensuring that we have air to breathe, water to drink and that we do not create a planet which becomes the very cause for the end of the human race.
• Restaurant’s Environment-Friendly Rules In conclusion, though it may prove to be costly, this is just a step that I have taken towards making our environment better and safer, and the more significant task lies with you.
• Open-Pit Mining Environmental Impact Finally, the author claimed that the absence of social conflict was explained through the community’s dependence on CLC’s economic activity and the assumption made by the members of the community regarding the role of government […]
• Water Scarcity and Its Effects on the Environment The core objective of this research paper is to examine water scarcity and its effects to the environment. This is because sufficiency of water supply depends on water conservation methods, distribution channels available in the […]
• E- Commerce and the Environment Introduction Reliance on the internet and mobile devices to do business leads to the so-called E-commerce. The term is hardly old, based on its adoption in the 2000s after the internet revolution. E-commerce is a real force in the present and future business world due to several facets. For example, the invention’s capacity to eliminate […]
• Endangered Species: Modern Environmental Problem Some of the activities which cause danger to these species include the following; This refers to loss of a place to live for the animals and can also be expressed as the ecosystem or the […]
• Environmental Sustainability on a Global Scale Compared to the world at the beginning of the 21st century, it required perceptional changes toward nature, biodiversity, and ecosystems, as well as reforms in agriculture and management of water, energy, and waste.
• Water Pollution as a Crime Against the Environment In particular, water pollution is a widespread crime against the environment, even though it is a severe felony that can result in harm to many people and vast territories.
• Climate Change: Causes, Impact on People and the Environment Climate change is the alteration of the normal climatic conditions in the earth, and it occurs over some time. In as much as there are arguments based around the subject, it is mainly caused by […]
• The United Nations Environmental Program and Sustainable Development Goals The current environmental issue of waste management will shape the future operations of UNEP under the gradient of recycling and use of biodegradable materials as the core sustainable initiative to eradicate the negative impact of […]
• Health and Environment: The Impact of Technology This is a foundation of the healthcare sector that has been offering support to the integration and operation of variety of health services applications and thus contributing to the betterment of the healthcare sector.
• UAE Laws and Regulations for Environmental Protection In the meantime, specialists point out that the activity of UAE’s focused on the environment preservation has become more consistent and efficient within the past decades. The principal governmental structure responsible for the problems of […]
• Business Obligations With Respect to Environment The analysis focuses on the ethical concerns faced by Virgin Blue Holdings which is one of the major airline company’s in Australia, and how the management deals with these issues within the environmental setup.
• Architecture and the Environment With today’s research people have been made aware of the advantages and disadvantages that have been brought about by the architecture of surrounding infrastructure.”The amount and size of windows in a room, openness, shape/form and […]
• Environmental Pollution in the Petroleum Industry At the same time, it threatens nature and creates many long-term issues related to pollution of air, soil, water, the weakening of the ozone layer, and the facilitation of the greenhouse gas effect.
• Whaling as Unethical Environmental Problem In this regard, the flow of energy and the biological pump of marine life depend on the whales’ survival. Some of the species like the blue whale play a crucial role in regulating the population […]
• Population Growth Impacts on the Environment Today, the fact that the population is growing steadily is the reason of the environment to change drastically. Water pollution is a direct consequence of the rapid growth of the population on the Earth.
• Importance of Environmental Conservation for Public Health The research study has also recommended the conservation of tropical forests so that the broad diversity of natural plant species can be beneficial in the management of public health.
• Organisms in Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments Water is a dense medium, and thus plants living in water have a weak shaft for supporting the foliage and the upperparts of the plant.
• Are Electric Vehicles Better for the Environment? This article reviews and evaluates the energy efficiency and environmental impact of electric vehicles with rechargeable batteries. Electric cars meet these requirements and provide opportunities for people to create transport that is safe for the […]
• Fish Farming Impacts on the Environment To begin with, according to Abel and Robert, fish farming has been generalized to have adverse effects on the environment, which ranges from the obliteration of the coastal habitats which are sensitive in the environment, […]
• Environment Destruction: Pollution Pollution usually causes a destabilization of the ecosystem through the intrusion of foreign materials into the environment. These forms of pollutants affect the environment through air pollution, noise pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution.
• Environmental Risk, Risk Management, and Risk Assessment The estimation of the possible consequences includes presence of the hazard, the possibility of the receptors getting affected by the hazard and the consequential damage from exposure to the hazard.
• Urban Sprawl and Environmental and Social Problems The concept of immense use of automobiles, which goes hand in hand with increase in the number and size of cities, is well known as urban sprawl and motorization.
• Environmental Impact of Bottled Water The process of manufacturing the water bottles, such as the dependence on fossil fuels, is causing a lot of direct as well indirect destructing to the environment.
• A Study of the Brine Shrimps and Their Natural Environment Brine shrimps can be used as environmental indicators and this is because one of the fundamental requirements in the breeding them is a salty environment.
• The Introduction of Environmental Legislation Governments in Australia and all over the world try to protect the environmental damage through the introduction of environment-related laws and regulations. In Australia, the State, Commonwealth, and the local governments introduce and administers legislation […]
• Biodiversity Hotspots and Environmental Ethics The magnitude of the problem of losing biodiversity hotspots is too great, to the extend of extinction of various species from the face of the earth.
• Environmental Laws in the UAE The laws and regulations of Federal Law No of 1999 for the Protection and Development of the Environment form the backbone of the Environmental Law within the UAE.
• The Aral Sea’s Environmental Issues Prior to its destruction, the Sea was one of the biggest water bodies, rich in different species of flora and fauna; a case that is opposite today, as the sea is almost becoming extinct.
• Kuwait’s Desert Pollution Obviously, the given problem might seem not that important if to observe the general environmental situation of the country, which is extremely close to that of the environmental catastrophe, but as an ordinary citizen, who […]
• Environment and Species in International Relations According to Torgerson: “The environmentalism that came onto the public scene in the late 1960s and early 1970s was part of an outburst of activism in civil society that was followed by the emergence of […]
• Urbanization and Environment The resources can be identified through the acquisition of knowledge about the environmental conditions of the areas in which urban development is expected to take place.
• Environmental Ethics: Land Ethic and the Platform of Deep Ecology Attfield defines environmental ethics as the study of ethics of the day to day interactions of human beings with their environment and their impacts on the systems of nature.
• Sea Foods in the Environment Protection Context Further, the purpose of the website is to give information that seeks to reward the efforts of people who protect and safeguard the ocean and seafood supplies such as lobsters.
• Impacts of Alternative Energy on the Environment The term “alternative energy” refers to energy sources other than fossil fuels, including renewable sources, such as solar and wind energy, as well as nuclear energy.
• The Genus Rosa’s Adaptation to the Environment Alternative hypothesis: The abundance and distribution of stomata, storage, transport, and floral structures have a substantial influence on the adaptation of the genus Rosa to its environment.
• War in Modern World: Effects on the Environment I have used the concept of massacres and killing to show the effects of hatred and bloodshed in this world and the horrific effects of death and fatalities on human kind and the atmosphere.
• Environmental Health Factors: Positive & Negative Additionally, it will expound on the impacts of nutrition, globalization, and observance of human rights to an individual’s health. Some of the positive environmental factors include adequate sources of nutrition, availability of safe water, presence […]
• How Solar Energy Can Save the Environment? Over the past few decades, the level of greenhouse gasses in the environment has been on the rise. The only cost in the production of solar energy is making the solar panels.
• The Role of Man in Environment Degradation and Diseases The link between environmental degradation and human beings explains the consequences of the same in relation to the emergence of modern-age diseases.
• Environmental Problem of the Ok Tedi Copper Mine In this case, the agreement achieved by the BHP and the government of Papua New Guinea cannot be discussed as ethically appropriate and effective because the decision to continue operations without the significant changes in […]
• Environmental Hazards and Human Health In particular, it is necessary to examine the evolution of the techniques that are used by people in order to utilize unwanted materials or goods.
• The International Relations Theories in Addressing of Environmental Issues The political dimension of the green theory has led to the emergence of “environmental justice, environmental democracy, environmental activism and the green states”.
• The Impact of Green Energy on Environment and Sustainable Development Traditional methods of receiving the necessary amount of power for meeting the needs of the developed cites and industries cannot be discussed as efficient according to the threat of the environmental pollution which is the […]
• Disney’s Representations of Nature At the end of the films, man’s relation to nature shows a strong sense of commitment to conservation. It is the swamp which ultimately leads Snow White to a teeming life of the forest.
• Marine Environment Protection and Management in the Shipping Industry Therefore, criminal penalties system in collaboration with the Environmental Protection Agency should reinforce legislations to protect sea creatures and humans from oil pollution or wastes from ships.
• Reducing Personal Impact on the Environment I noticed that I allowed the largest water loss during bathing, and after I began to take a shower, I started to consume about a third less water.
• Paper Recycling: Environmental and Business Issues In order for paper to be properly recycled, the several types of paper must be separated because the different types of paper must be used for different types of products. This is the most common […]
• How “Making It Eco Friendly” Is Related to Information Technology and the Environment In itself, IT is related to making IT eco friendly if resources such as IT hardware utilized are environmentally friendly and the actions of users uphold conservation of the environment.
• Lancelets’ Adaptation and Environment The first describable organism in the evolutionary phylogeny of lancelets is the ‘Branchiostoma Lanceolatum’, a molluscan slug of the Limax species.
• Environmental Impact of Livestock Production The implications of the article were concerned with the need to bring the attention of the public to the issue that the livestock sector requires the use of a large number of natural resources while […]
• Environmental Impact of Medical Wastes These inconsistencies are present in the Federal guidelines laid down by the States with regards to the definition of medical waste and the management options available for handling, transporting, treating and disposing medical waste.
• The Trends, Opportunities and Challenges of Environmental Sustainability The environmental issues on earth have extended radically in the past decades and are currently among the main threats and challenges which have impacts on people lifestyles and organizations processes around the world.
• Human Impact on the Environment The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the impacts of logging on the forest resources in Uganda and offer recommendations that can be used to mitigate and manage the identified impacts.
• Environmental Injustice in Modern World This has led to the accumulation of gases and deforestation hence affecting the environment negatively. Agricultural activities have led to the destruction of forests for settlement and cultivation thus affecting the environment negatively.
• Environmental Issues in Asia This paper is going to have a look at the key environmental issues in Asian countries as well as the policies put in place by various agencies to address the issues.
• The Impact of Industrial Pollution on the Environment The attainment of these higher costs is through compulsory inclusion of the social costs of production in determination of the price of the goods.
• The Effect of Polymers on Environment vs Glass One of the first pioneers in the application of polymers was Joseph Priestley who in 1770 made a remarkable discovery that led to the use of natural rubber as an eraser.
• How to Fight Environmental Imbalances The environment has to have balance in it because of the need to uphold the equilibrium of interactions inside food webs and maintain the cyclic flow of materials from the abiotic environment to the biosphere […]
• Social and Eco-Entrepreneurship for Environment Social entrepreneurship is a field that deals with the recognition of social problems in society and using entrepreneurial concepts, operations, and processes to achieve a social change.
• Environmental Issue: Hunting on Whales The case study at hand presents an environmental issue involving the Makah tribe that had hunted whales over two thousand years until the 1920s when this practice had to be discontinued due to the decline […]
• Sustainability and Human Impact on Environment Sustainability entails the analysis of ecosystem functioning, diversity, and role in the balance of life. It is the consideration of how humanity can exploit the natural world for sustenance without affecting its ability to meet […]
• Overpopulation Effects on the Environment In comparison to the population in 2000, the population in 2050 is predicted to rise by 47 percent. The aim of this research is to describe the effects of overpopulation on land, air, and food […]
• Environmental Protection: Liquid Waste To understand the role of the EPA in protecting the human health and environment in the United States from liquid waste pollution, it is necessary to discuss the EPA’s activities and importance and to focus […]
• Corporate Responsibility to the Environment Critics of Rawls theories included Nozick who held the view that inequality had to exist in the economic distribution of goods or wealth in a society.
• Environmental Protection of the American Forests Two approaches to the issue of environmental protection of forests will be examined in the following paper, the approach described in the article “The American Forests” by John Muir and in the article “Save the […]
• Environmental Science: Smart Water Management Among the essential elements in human life is water, which is required for maintaining the water balance in the body and for cleanliness, as well as for many economic sectors, from agriculture to metallurgy.
• Packaging and Protection of Finished Goods and the Environment Moreover, the paper views what concerns the problem creates and identifies preventive measures so as to contribute to the development of safety in the environment and society.
• Microbial-Environmental Interactions in HIV & AIDS The virus manifests in two subtypes, HIV-1 and HIV-2, and the severity of infection depends on the type of viral attack.
• Approaches to the Environmental Ethics The ethical approach Victor expresses is the one that humanity has used for centuries, which made the planet convenient for people, but it also led to the gradual destruction of the environment. The benefit of […]
• Does Recycling Harm the Environment? Recycling is the activity that causes the most damage to the environment. Summarizing the above, it is necessary to state that waste recycling has a negative connotation in relation to nature and the environment.
• Industrial Meat Business and Environmental Issues According to Goodman, it is essential to consider the ethical implications of our food choices and their impact on animals, the environment, and society. By choosing to consume meat, individuals are complicit in the perpetuation […]
• The Environmental Impacts of Exploratory Drilling Overall, the purpose of this report is to identify the environmental impacts of exploratory drilling, the financial benefits of this activity, and the relevant political regulations.
• Globalization in the Environmental Sphere To date, the problem of globalization is relevant, and with it the question of the impact of globalization on the environmental sphere is also of great interest.
• Climate Change, Economy, and Environment Central to the sociological approach to climate change is studying the relationship between the economy and the environment. Another critical area of sociologists ‘ attention is the relationship between inequality and the environment.
• Participatory Action Research on Canada’s Environment
• Global Climate Change and Environmental Conservation
• Environment in the Novel “Ishmael” by Daniel Quinn
• Mining in Canada and Its Environmental Impact
• Eco Businesses’ Effect on the Environment
• Environmental Pollution and Human Health
• Consumer Relationship With Pro-Environmental Apparel Brands
• An Environmental Communicator Profile
• Human Activity: Impact on the Environment
• Genetic and Environmental Impact of the Chornobyl Disaster
• Risk Factor Analysis and Environmental Sustainability
• Negative Environmental Impacts and Solutions
• Environmental Ethics of Pesticide Usage in Agriculture
• Network Organizations and Environmental Processes
• Carbon Offsets: Combatting Environmental Pollution
• The Formation of the Environmental Protection Agency
• Protecting the Environment Against Climate Change
• Environmental Pollution: Waste Landfilling and Open Dumping
• Thermodynamics: Application to Environmental Issues
• How Bottles Pollute the Environment
• Environmental Problems in China and Japan
• Exploring Environmental Issues: Marine Ecotourism
• Influence of Technology on Environmental Concerns
• Environmental Legislation in Texas
• Middle East and North Africa Region: Environmental Management
• Is Humanity Already Paying for Environmental Damage?
• Environmental Injustice Impeding Health and Happiness
• Environmental Impact of Wind Farms and Fracking
• The Dangers of Global Warming: Environmental and Economic Collapse
• The Effects of Gold Mining in the Amazons on the Environment and the Population
• Environmental Racism: The Water Crisis in Flint, Michigan
• Environmental Illnesses and Prevention Measures
• Deforestation Impact on Environment and Human
• Market-Based Approaches to Environmental Law
• Social and Environmental Problems in Oakland and Detroit
• Coates Chemicals: Environmental, Sustainability, and Safety
• Environmental Feedback Loop and Ecological Systems
• A Corporation’s Duties to the Environment
• Demography, Urbanization and Environment
• Environmental Issues, Psychology, and Economics
• Environmental Impacts During Pregnancy
• Attaining Sustainability in the Environment
• Achieving Environmental Sustainability
• Eating Habits and Environmental Worldviews
• Environmental Protection: Pollution and Fossil Fuels
• Environmental Anthropology and Human Survival at The Arctic Biome
• Environmental Problems: Care of the Planet
• Intermodal Transportation Impacts on Environment
• Cats’ and Dogs’ Influences on the Environment and the Ecosystem
• Is Tap Water Better and Safer for People and the Environment Than Bottled Water?
• Nutrition and Its Impact on the Environment
• Environmental Impact Assessment as a Tool of Environmental Justice
• Australia’s State of the Environment
• Environmental Policy’s Impact on Economic Growth
• Business Ethics in Decisions About the Environment
• Environment: Miami Area Analysis
• Agriculture: Environmental, Economic, and Social Aspects
• Toxicity of Mercury: Environmental Health
• The Impact of the Food Industry on the Environment
• The Impact of Atmospheric Pollution on Human Health and the Environment
• Analysis of Culture and Environmental Problems
• Science and the Environment: Plastics and Microplastics
• Impact of the Exxon Valdez Spill on the Environment
• Aeon Company and Environmental Safety
• Impending Environmental Disaster in Van Camp’s “Lying in Bed Together”
• Resolution of International Disputes Related to Environmental Practices
• Environment and the Challenges of Global Governance
• Coal Usage – The Effects on Environment and Human Health
• Environmental and Genetic Factors That Influence Health
• Limits on Urban Sprawl. Environmental Science
• Geography and Environmental Features of Machu Picchu
• The Green New Deal: An Environmental Project
• Restorative Environmental Justice and Its Interpretation
• Property Laws Facilitate Environmental Destruction
• Measuring Exposure in Environmental Epidemiology
• Air Cargo Impact on the Environment
• Environmental Marine Ecosystems: Biological Invasions
• Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Analysis of Environmental Samples: a Literature Review
• Environmental and Global Health Issues: Measles
• Fabric Recycling: Environmental Collapse
• Environmental Research – Radon Gas
• Environmental Justice Movement
• Racial Politics of Urban Health and Environmental Justice
• Environmental Discrimination in Canada
• Environmental Worldviews & Environmental Justice
• Flint Water Crisis: Environmental Racism and Racial Capitalism
• Environmental Injustice Among African Americans
• Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism
• Building a School in the Polluted Environment
• India’s Environmental Health and Emergencies
• Climate Change: Sustainability Development and Environmental Law
• Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism in the US
• Avocado Production and Socio-Environmental Issues
• Environmental Philosophies and Actions
• Bipartisan Strategies for Overcoming Environmental Disaster
• Pope Francis’s Recommendations on Environmental Issues
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Fracking: An Environmental Study
• Non-Govermental Organizations in Environmental Changes
• Green Management and Environmental Auditing
• The Environmental Movement in the US
• Mega-Events and Environmental Sustainability
• Dubai Aluminium Company Ltd: Environmental Policies
• Environmental Science: The Ozone Layer
• The Current Environmental Policy in the USA
• Aspects of Environmental Studies
• The Environment and Its Effects
• Cruise Liners’ Environmental Management and Sustainability
• Environmental Effect & Waste Management Survey
• Greenwashing: Full Environmental Sustainability?
• Great Cities’ Impact on Ecology and Environmental Health
• Geology and Environmental Science
• Environmental Degradation Impacts of Concrete Use in Construction
• Environmental Management for Construction Industry
• Airlines and Globalisation: Environmental Impact
• The Business Ethics, Code of Conduct, Environment Initiatives in Companies
• Environmental Features of the Sacramento City
• Coal Seam Gas Industry Impact: Environmental Epidemiology
• A Relationship Between Environmental Disclosure and Environmental Responsiveness
• Environmental Biotechnology: “Analysis of Endocrine Disruption in Southern California Coastal Fish”
• Sustainable Environmental Policy: Fight the Emerging Issues
• Environmental Regulations Effects on Accounting
• Environmental Sustainability of Veja
• Islamic Architecture: Environment and Climate
• Environmental Assessment
• Environmental Law in New South Wales
• Environmental Law: The Aluminium Smelting Plan
• The National Environmental Policy Act
• Environmental Biology: Hydraulic Fracturing Technology
• Environmental Policies Statements Response
• Environmental Accounting in Dubai
• Community Environmental Exposure in Bayou Vista and Omega Bay
• Environmental Audit for the MTBE Plant
• Taking Back Eden: Environmental Law Goes Global
• Environmental Risk Report on Nanoparticles
• Reaction Paper: Valuing the Environment Through Contingent Valuation
• Environmental Geotechnics: Review
• Environmental Challenges Caused by Fossil Fuels
• Water for Environmental Health and Promotion
• Environmental Management ISO 14000- ENEN90005 EMS Manual for Sita Landfill
• National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
• Environmental Impact of Healthcare Facilities
• Environmental Law: Strategies and Issue of Standing
• Environmental Protection: Law and Policy
• Environmental Law: History, Sources, Treaties and Setbacks
• Environmental Microbiology Overview
• Environmental Noise Effects on Students of Oregon State University
• Australian Environmental Law
• Environmental Issues of Rwanda
• Environment and Land Conflict in Brazil
• The Information Context and the Formation of Public Response on Environmental Issues
• Australian Fires and Their Environmental Impact
• The Environment Conditions in the Desert
• Purchasing Trees Online for Environmental Protection
• Water Scarcity: Industrial Projects of Countries That Affect the External Environment
• Rayon and Its Impact on Health and Environment
• Opportunity Cost and Environment Protection
• Advanced Environmental Recycling Technologies Analysis
• Environmental Studies: Climate Changes
• Environmental Degradation in “Turning Tides” by Mathieu D’Astous
• Global Warming: Negative Effects to the Environment
• Environmental Planning: Dam Construction
• Agriculture and Environment: Organic Foods
• Environmental Protection With Energy Saving Tools
• Environmental Politics Review and Theories
• Social Development: Globalization and Environmental Problems
• Macondo Well Blowout’s Environmental Assessment
• Sheffield Flooding and Environmental Issues Involved
• Do India and China Have a Right to Pollute the Environment?
• Global Warming and Environmental Refugees
• Influence of Car Emissions on the Environment
• Environmental Ethics Concerning Animal Rights
• The Politics of Climate Change, Saving the Environment
• Environmental Deterioration and Poverty in Kenya
• Global Warming Issues Review and Environmental Sustainability
• Environmental Issue: Whaling
• Impact of Mobile Telephony on the Environment
• How to Feed Everybody and Protect the Environment?
• Geographical Information System (GIS) in Environmental Impact Assessment
• Population Grows And Environment
• Human Population Ecology: Human Interaction With the Environment
• Environmental Policies Made by the Finland Government
• Kenya and Brazil: Comparing Environmental Conflict
• The Influence of Global Warming and Pollution on the Environment
• Genes and Environment: Genetic Factors and Issues Analysis
• Human Impacts on the Environment
• US Government and Environmental Concerns
• Florida Wetlands: Importance to the Health of the Environment
• Environmental Issue in Canada: Kyoto Protocol
• The Positive Impact of Environment on Tourist Industry
• Environmental Preferences and Oil Development in Alaska
• Environmental Problems From Human Overpopulation
• Aboriginal Environmental Issues in Canada
• Environmental Sociology. Capitalism and the Environment
• Genes, Lifestyle, and Environment in Health of Population
• Los Angeles International Airport’s Environmental Impacts
• Environmental Policy: Water Sanitation
• U.S. Environmental Policies: The Clean Air Act
• Pollution and Federal Environmental Policy
• Fossil Fuel Combustion and Federal Environmental Policy
• The Impact of Mining Companies on Environment
• Capitalism and Its Influence on the Environment
• Emiratis Perceptions of Environmental and Cultural Conservation
• Shipping and the Environment
• Environmental Security in Gulf Council Countries
• Environmental Pollution Analysis
• Preserving the Environment and Its Treasures
• Humans and Humanists: Ethics and the Environment
• Mosquito Control Strategies in the Urban Environment
• Energy, Its Usage and the Environment
• Carbon Dioxide Environmental Effects in 1990- 2010
• Hydropower Dams and Their Environmental Impacts
• Fiji Water’ Environmental Effects
• Coal Pollution in China as an Environmental Problem
• Natural Storms and Environmental Studies
• Environmental Perils: Climate Change Issue
• Mining and Environment in Australia and South Africa
• Health and Environment in Abu Dhabi: Graphs’ Description
• Environment Quality and Tourism in Chinese Cities
• Health and Environment in Abu Dhabi: Statistical Significance
• The Upper Big Branch Mine Disaster and Environment
• Plastic Reusable Bags for Green Environment
• “Population & Environment” in Mazur’s Feminist Approach
• Environmental Pollution and Increased Birds Death
• Fuel Cell Vehicles Preventing Environmental Hazards
• Grundfos: Environment and Society Results
• Precautionary Principle in Environmental Situations
• The Impact of Overpopulation on the Global Environment
• Papua New Guinea Environmental Analysis
• Impact of Sea Transport on the Aquatic Environment
• Animal Testing and Environmental Protection
• Green Building: The Impact of Humanity on the Environment
• Global Warming: People Impact on the Environment
• Information Technology and Environment Sustainability
• Anthropocene and Human Impact on Environment
• Environmental Pollution and Green Policies
• Human & Environment in Kimmerer’s & Austin’s Works
• Dioxins and Furans in Japan’s Environment
• Is Recycling Good for the Environment?
• Environment and Business in “Bidder 70” Documentary
• Hunting, Its Moral and Environmental Issues
• Pure Home Water Company’s Environment
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill’s Environmental Effect
• Water Cycle and Environmental Factors
• Green Marketing and Environment
• North American Environmental Transnational Activism
• Environmental Risks in the United Arab Emirates
• Reverse Logistics and the Environment
• US Position on International Environmental Concerns
• Environmental Ethics and International Policy
• Environmental Revolution: Air Pollution in China
• Rail Transportation Industry Environmental Impacts
• Globalization as to Health, Society, Environment
• Pollution & Climate Change as Environmental Risks
• Environmental Technology and Its Disruptive Impact
• Human Behavioral Effects on Environment
• Data Analysis in Economics, Sociology, Environment
• America’s Major Environmental Challenges
• Environmental Studies: Energy Wastefulness in the UAE
• Environmental Risk Management in the UAE
• Business and Its Environment: Greenhouse Emissions
• The US Foreign Policy and Environmental Protection
• Contrasting Environmental Policies in Brazil
• Air Pollution Effects on the Health and Environment
• How Does Environmental Security Affect Sustainable Development?
• Environmental Sustainability in Clean City Organization
• Gene-Environment Interaction Theory
• Environment: Tropical Deforestation Causes in Indonesia
• Hydraulic Fracturing and Its Environmental Impacts
• Nuclear Power & Environment
• Environmental Studies: Artificial Leaf
• Environmental Justice and Air Pollution in Canada
• Environmental Studies: Green Technology
• “Global Environment History” a Book by Ian G. Simmons
• Environmental Studies: Photosynthesis Concept
• Big Coal and the Natural Environment Pollution
• Externalities Effects on People and Environment
• Environment Protection Agency Technical Communication
• Maori Health Development and Environmental Issue
• Mars: Water and the Martian Landscape
• Natural Resources and the Environment
• Greenbelts as a Toronto’ Environmental Planning Tool
• Environmental Studies: The Florida Everglades
• Solving Complex Environmental Problems
• Environmental Impacts of Cruise Tourism
• Environmental Studies: Saving Endangered Species
• Environmental Stewardship of Deforestation
• Environmental Studies: Transforming Cultures From Consumerism to Sustainability
• Assaults on the Environment as a Form of War or Violence
• Brazil Environmental Issues
• Environmental Impact – Life Cycle Assessment
• BHP Waste Managements: Environmental Justice
• Saving the Environment With Eco-Friendly Amenities
• The Adoption of Agenda 21 of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
• Air Pollution: Human Influence on Environment
• The Sustainable Hotel Environment
• Research Effect of Environmental Disasters on Human Reproductive Health
• Analysis of Love Canal Environmental Disaster
• Global Warming and Its Effects on the Environment
• Environment and Renewable Energy
• Environmental Issue – Climate Change
• World Government and Environmental Conservation
• Materials and the Environment
• Health and Environment in Abu Dhabi
• The Effects of Human Activities on the Environment
• Environmental and Health Concerns of Hurricanes
• Environmental Security as an Approach to Threats Posed by Global Environmental Change
• Noise Control Act of 1972
• World Bank’s Transformation of Human-Environmental Relations in the Global South
• Culture and Leadership in a Safe Industrial Environment
• Environmental Conditions in Tunnels Towards Environmentally Sustainable Future
• Changes and Challenges: China’s Environmental Management in Transition
• Water and Environment Engineering
• Corporate Environmental Policy Statements in Mainland China: To What Extent Do They Conform to ISO 14000 Documentation?
• Jiangsu Province Environmental Analysis
• Science in Environmental Management
• Quality and Environmental Management
• Modern State as an Impediment to Environmental Issues
• Emirates Airlines Environmental Consciousness
• Knowledge Management Assessment in Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi
• Environmental Issues and Management
• Green Computing: A Contribution to Save the Environment
• Environmental Issue in China
• Environmental Studies: Life Cycle Analysis of Milk
• Working for the Environment
• Environmental Protection Agency and Transportation Standards
• Environmental Damage From the BP Oil Spill
• Environmental Sustainability Audit: The Oman Environmental Services Holding Company
• A Robust Strategy for Sustainable Energy
• Chesapeake Bay Environment Protection
• Environmental Disasters and Ways Companies Cope With Them
• The Concept of Corporate Environmental Responsibility
• Environmental Policy in UK, Canada, and India
• Eco and Cultural Tourism: Extraordinary Experience and Untouched Natural Environment
• Effects of Conflict or Nuclear Materials on Environment and Society
• MLC and the Environmental Management Accounting
• Environmental Degradation in Lithgow’s Waters
• Evaluate Human Resource Issues in Hong Kong Food and Environmental Hygiene Department
• On the Rescue Mission: Preserving the Environment
• A Cost Benefit Analysis of the Environmental and Economic Effects of Nuclear Energy in the United States
• Reducing the Energy Costs in Hotels: An Attempt to Take Care of the Environment
• Learning of Environment Sustainability in Education
• Natural and the Environmental Protection
• Silent Spring and Environmental Issues
• The Environment, Resources, and Their Economic Effects
• Carbon Taxes in Environmental Protection
• Coyotes as an Environmental Concern in Southern California
• Fossil Energy and Economy
• Eliminating the Conflict: Tourism and Environment
• Tourism and Environment in Conflict
• Human Impact to the Environment – Cuba Deforestation Issue
• The Effect of Genetically Modified Food on Society and Environment
• The Effect of Nuclear Energy on the Environment
• Wind Energy for Environmental Sustainability
• Acidic Rain Effects on the Environment
• Concept of Environmental Ethic in Society
• The Needs of People and the Needs of the Environment
• Effects of Oil Spills on Aquatic Environments
• Impact of Plastics on the Environment
• Current Environmental Health Issues
• The Fossil Oil Energy Effects on the Environment
• Environmental Impacts of Nuclear Material
• 21st Century Environmental Perils
• Human Interaction With the Surrounding Environment
• The Relationship Between Psychology and the Preservation of the Environment
• Effects of Classical Body to Environmental Thought
• Thailand Issues: Environment, Child Prostitution, and HIV/AIDS
• Environmentalism and Economic Freedom
• Environmental Defense Fund
• Identity: Discourse of Environment
• Bottled Water Effect on Environment and Culture
• Environmental Issues of Yucca Mountain Nuclear Storage Facility in Nevada
• Gas Drilling Project: Economics and Environment
• Population Growth and the Distribution of Human Populations to Effects on the Environment
• The Environmental Impact of Nuclear Energy
• Human Population and Global Resources
• Causes of Water Pollution and the Present Environmental Solution
• Environmental Pollution in Canada
• Moral Obligations in Environment
• Obligation of Corporations in Environmental Conservation
• Their Benefits Aside, Human Diets Are Polluting the Environment and Sending Animals to Extinction
• Expanding Oil Refinery: Environmental and Health Effects
• Environmental Justice Issues Affecting African Americans: Water Pollution
• Problem of Nature – Environment Degradation
• Southeast Asia Human-Environment Issue
• Impact of Full Moon Party on Environment
• Written Analysis of Acid in the Environment: Lessons Learned and Future Prospects
• Genetically Modified Foods and Environment
• Is Genetically Modified Food Safe for Human Bodies and the Environment?
• Ecosphere Care in the United States
• Environment, Disease and Crime in Egypt
• United National Environment Programme (UNEP)
• The Problem of Environmental Degradation in Modern World
• Bio Desertification and Environmental Issues in Eritrea
• Green Buildings Impact on the Environment
• Toulmin Model Argument About the Environment
• Cleaning the Air at the West Carolina Environmental Protection Agency
• Understanding and Attitude Towards Environment: Course Document Review
• The History and Theory of Historic Preservation and Environmental Conservation
• Consequences of the Disposal of Medical Wastes on the Environment Abstract
• Environmental Management: Green Taxes
• Mercury: Environmental Concerns and Economic Value
• Effects of Global Warming on the Environment
• Would Evolution Proceed More Quickly in a Rapidly Changing Environment?
• Who Must Take Care of the Environment?
• Why Can Air Pollution Harm the Environment Dramatically?
• Why and How Should We Account for the Environment?
• Why Animals Change Their Colors in Response to Environment?
• Why Don’t Languages Adapt to Their Environment?
• Why Are Environmental Ethics Important in the Preservation of the Natural Environment?
• Why Are Industrial Farms Good for the Environment?
• Why Is Mountain Meadows Basin Very Important for the Environment?
• Why Do People Harm the Environment Although They Try to Treat It Well?
• Why Do People Use Their Cars While the Built Environment Imposes Cycling?
• Why Protecting, Our Environment, Is So Important?
• Why Need to Study the Environment?
• Why the Oil Industry Continues to Harm the Environment?
• Why Is Population Growth’s Effect on the Earth’s Environment?
• Can Cleaner Environment Promote International Trade?
• Can Ecolabeling Schemes Preserve the Environment?
• Can Employment Structure Promote Environment-Biased Technical Progress?
• Can Green Taxes Save the Environment?
• Can Social Media Help Save the Environment?
• Can the Market Take Care of the Environment?
• Can the United States Help Improve Their Perishing Environment?
• Which Human Activities Affected the Natural Environment of the Amazon Basin?
• What Are Our Responsibilities Toward the Environment?
• What Are Plastics, and How Do They Affect the Environment?
• What Are Some Ways That the Environment Affects Human Health?
• What Are the Effects of Acid Rain on the Environment?
• What Are the Effects of Motor Vehicles on the Environment?
• How Has Consumerism Shaped the Environment by Influencing?
• How Does Crude Oil Pollute Environment?
• Water Pollution Research Topics
• Environmentalism Essay Topics
• Landfill Essay Titles
• Ecosystem Essay Topics
• Hazardous Waste Essay Topics
• Pollution Essay Ideas
• Climate Change Titles
• Global Issues Essay Topics
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Environmental Ethics

Environmental ethics is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human contents. This entry covers: (1) the challenge of environmental ethics to the anthropocentrism (i.e., human-centeredness) embedded in traditional western ethical thinking; (2) the development of the discipline from the 1960s and 1970s; (3) the connection of deep ecology, feminist environmental ethics, animism and social ecology to politics; (4) the attempt to apply traditional ethical theories, including consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics, to support contemporary environmental concerns; (5) the broader concerns of some thinkers with wilderness, the built environment and the politics of poverty; and (6) the ethics of sustainability and climate change.

1. Introduction: The Challenge of Environmental Ethics

2. the development of environmental ethics, 3.1 deep ecology, 3.2 feminism and the environment, 3.3 disenchantment and the new animism, 3.4 social ecology and bioregionalism.

Supplementary Document: Biodiversity Preservation

5. Wilderness, the Built Environment, Poverty and Politics

• Supplementary Document: Pathologies of Environmental Crisis – Theories and Empirical Research

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Suppose putting out natural fires, culling feral animals or removing some individual members of overpopulated species is necessary for the protection of the integrity of a certain ecosystem. Will these actions be morally permissible or even required? Is it morally acceptable for farmers in non-industrial countries to practise slash and burn techniques to clear areas for agriculture? Consider a mining company which has performed open pit mining in some previously unspoiled area. Does the company have a moral obligation to restore the landform and surface ecology? And what is the value of a humanly restored environment compared with the originally natural environment? Many people think that it is morally wrong for human beings to pollute and destroy parts of the natural environment and to consume a huge proportion of the planet’s natural resources. If that is wrong, is it simply because a sustainable environment is essential to human existence and well-being? Or is such behaviour also wrong because the natural environment and/or its various contents have certain values in their own right so that these values ought to be respected and protected in any case? These are among the questions investigated by environmental ethics. Some of them are specific questions faced by individuals in particular circumstances, while others are more global questions faced by groups and communities. Yet others are more abstract questions concerning the value and moral standing of the natural environment and its non-human components.

In the literature on environmental ethics the distinction between instrumental value and intrinsic value (in the sense of “non-instrumental value”) is of considerable importance. The former is the value of things as means to further some other ends, whereas the latter is the value of things as ends in themselves regardless of whether they are also useful as means to other ends. For instance, certain fruits have instrumental value for bats who feed on them, since feeding on the fruits is a means to survival for the bats. However, it is not widely agreed that fruits have value as ends in themselves. We can likewise think of a person who teaches others as having instrumental value for those who want to acquire knowledge. Yet, in addition to any such value, it is normally said that a person, as a person, has intrinsic value, i.e., value in their own right independently of their prospects for serving the ends of others. For another example, a certain wild plant may have instrumental value because it provides the ingredients for some medicine or as an aesthetic object for human observers. But if the plant also has some value in itself independently of its prospects for furthering some other ends such as human health, or the pleasure from aesthetic experience, then the plant also has intrinsic value. Because the intrinsically valuable is that which is good as an end in itself, it is commonly agreed that something’s possession of intrinsic value generates a prima facie direct moral duty on the part of moral agents to protect it or at least refrain from damaging it (see O’Neil 1992 and Jamieson 2002 for detailed accounts of intrinsic value).

Many traditional western ethical perspectives, however, are anthropocentric or human-centered in that either they assign intrinsic value to human beings alone (i.e., what we might call anthropocentric in a strong sense) or they assign a significantly greater amount of intrinsic value to human beings than to any non-human things such that the protection or promotion of human interests or well-being at the expense of non-human things turns out to be nearly always justified (i.e., what we might call anthropocentric in a weak sense). For example, Aristotle ( Politics , Bk. 1, Ch. 8) apparently maintains that “nature has made all things specifically for the sake of man”. Such purposive or teleological thinking may encourage the belief that the value of non-human things in nature is merely instrumental. It is difficult for anthropocentric positions to articulate what is wrong with the cruel treatment of non-human animals, except to the extent that such treatment may lead to bad consequences for human beings. Immanuel Kant (“Duties to Animals and Spirits”, in Lectures on Ethics ), for instance, suggests that cruelty towards a dog might encourage a person to develop a character which would be desensitized to cruelty towards humans. From this standpoint, cruelty towards non-human animals would be instrumentally, rather than intrinsically, wrong. Likewise, anthropocentrism often recognizes some non-intrinsic wrongness of anthropogenic (i.e. human-caused) environmental devastation. Such destruction might damage the well-being of human beings now and in the future, since our very existence and well-being is essentially dependent on a sustainable environment. This argument was made in the previous century (see Passmore 1974; Bookchin 1990; Norton et al . (eds.) 1995), and seems subsequently to have garnered wide public support (see the results of surveys in Pew 2018).

When environmental ethics emerged as a new sub-discipline of philosophy in the early 1970s, it did so by posing a challenge to traditional anthropocentrism. In the first place, it questioned the assumed moral superiority of human beings to members of other species on earth. In the second place, it investigated the possibility of rational arguments for assigning intrinsic value to the natural environment and its non-human contents. It should be noted, however, that some theorists working in the field see no need to develop new, non-anthropocentric theories. Instead, they advocate what may be called enlightened anthropocentrism (or, perhaps more appropriately called, prudential anthropocentrism). Briefly, this is the view that all the moral duties we have towards the environment are derived from our direct duties to its human inhabitants. The practical purpose of environmental ethics, they maintain, is to provide moral grounds for social policies aimed at protecting the earth’s environment and remedying environmental degradation. Enlightened anthropocentrism, they argue, is sufficient for that practical purpose, and perhaps even more effective in delivering pragmatic outcomes, in terms of policy-making, than non-anthropocentric theories given the theoretical burden on the latter to provide sound arguments for its more radical view that the non-human environment has intrinsic value (cf. Norton 1991, de Shalit 1994, Light and Katz 1996). Furthermore, some prudential anthropocentrists may hold what might be called cynical anthropocentrism, which says that we have a higher-level anthropocentric reason to be non-anthropocentric in our day-to-day thinking. Suppose that a day-to-day non-anthropocentrist tends to act more benignly towards the non-human environment on which human well-being depends. This would provide reason for encouraging non-anthropocentric thinking, even to those who find the idea of non-anthropocentric intrinsic value hard to swallow. In order for such a strategy to be effective one may need to hide one’s cynical anthropocentrism from others and even from oneself. The position can be structurally compared to some indirect form of consequentialism and may attract parallel critiques (see Henry Sidgwick on utilitarianism and esoteric morality, and Bernard Williams on indirect utilitarianism).

Although nature was the focus of much nineteenth and twentieth century philosophy, contemporary environmental ethics only emerged as an academic discipline in the 1970s. The questioning and rethinking of the relationship of human beings with the natural environment over the last thirty years reflected an already widespread perception in the 1960s that the late twentieth century faced a human population explosion as part of a serious environmental crisis. Among the accessible work that drew attention to a sense of crisis was Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1963), which consisted of a number of essays earlier published in the New Yorker magazine detailing how pesticides such as DDT, aldrin and dieldrin concentrated through the food web. Commercial farming practices using these chemicals to maximize crop yields and profits, Carson speculates, are capable of impacting simultaneously on environmental and public health. Their use, she claims, can have the side effects of killing other living things (besides the targeted insects) and causing human disease. While Carson correctly fears that over-use of pesticides may lead to increases in some resistant insect species, the intensification of agriculture, land-clearing and massive use of neonicotonoid pesticides has subsequently contributed to a situation in which, according to some reviews, nearly half of insect species are threatened with extinction (Sánchez-Bayo and Wickhuys 2019, and compare van der Sluijs and Vaage 2016, Komonen, Halme and Kotiaho 2019). Declines in insect populations not only threaten pollination of plant species, but may also be responsible for huge declines in some bird populations (Goulson 2021) and appear to go hand in hand with cascading extinctions across ecosystems worldwide (Kehoe, Frago and Sanders 2021).

In a much cited essay (White 1967) on the historical roots of the environmental crisis, historian Lynn White argued that the main strands of Judeo-Christian thinking had encouraged the overexploitation of nature by maintaining the superiority of humans over all other forms of life on earth, and by depicting all of nature as created for the use of humans. White’s thesis was widely discussed in theology, history, and has been subject to some sociological testing as well as being regularly discussed by philosophers (see Whitney 1993, Attfield 2001). Central to the rationale for his thesis were the works of the Church Fathers and The Bible itself, supporting the anthropocentric perspective that humans are the only things on Earth that matter in themselves. Consequently, they may utilize and consume everything else to their advantage without any injustice. For example, Genesis 1: 27–8 states: “God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them. And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over fish of the sea, and over fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.” Likewise, Thomas Aquinas ( Summa Contra Gentiles , Bk. 3, Pt 2, Ch 112) argued that non-human animals are “ordered to man’s use”. According to White, the Judeo-Christian idea that humans are created in the image of the transcendent supernatural God, who is radically separate from nature, also by extension radically separates humans themselves from nature. This ideology further opened the way for untrammeled exploitation of nature. Modern Western science itself, White argued, was “cast in the matrix of Christian theology” so that it too inherited the “orthodox Christian arrogance toward nature” (White 1967: 1207). Clearly, without technology and science, the environmental extremes to which we are now exposed would probably not be realized. The point of White’s thesis, however, is that given the modern form of science and technology, Judeo-Christianity itself provides the original deep-seated drive to unlimited exploitation of nature. Nevertheless, White argued that some minority traditions within Christianity (e.g., the views of St. Francis) might provide an antidote to the “arrogance” of a mainstream tradition steeped in anthropocentrism. This sentiment is echoed in later Christian writings on attitudes to nature (see for example Berry 2018, chs 10, 11, and compare Zaheva and Szasz 2015).

Around the same time, the Stanford ecologists Paul and Anne Ehrlich warned in The Population Bomb (Ehrlich 1968) that the growth of human population threatened the viability of planetary life-support systems. The sense of environmental crisis stimulated by those and other popular works was intensified by NASA’s production and wide dissemination of a particularly potent image of Earth from space taken at Christmas 1968 and featured in the Scientific American in September 1970. Here, plain to see, was a living, shining planet voyaging through space and shared by all of humanity, a precious vessel vulnerable to pollution and to the overuse of its limited capacities. In 1972 a team of researchers at MIT led by Donella Meadows published the Limits to Growth study, a work that summed up in many ways the emerging concerns of the previous decade and the sense of vulnerability triggered by the view of the earth from space. In the commentary to the study, the researchers wrote:

We affirm finally that any deliberate attempt to reach a rational and enduring state of equilibrium by planned measures, rather than by chance or catastrophe, must ultimately be founded on a basic change of values and goals at individual, national and world levels. (Meadows et al. 1972: 195)

The call for a “basic change of values” in connection to the environment (a call that could be interpreted in terms of either instrumental or intrinsic values) reflected a need for the development of environmental ethics as a new sub-discipline of philosophy. The aim of facing up to the challenge of limited resources was fostered subsequently by studies of the growing human “ecological footprint” on the earth (Rees 1992, Wackernagel et al . 2018) and by the exploration of “planetary boundaries” and the concept of a “safe operating space for humanity” (Rokström et al . 2009, Biermann and Kim 2020).

The new field emerged almost simultaneously in three countries—the United States, Australia, and Norway. In the first two of these countries, direction and inspiration largely came from the earlier twentieth century American literature of the environment. For instance, the Scottish emigrant John Muir (founder of the Sierra Club and “father of American conservation”) and subsequently the forester Aldo Leopold had advocated an appreciation and conservation of things “natural, wild and free”. Their concerns were motivated by a combination of ethical and aesthetic responses to nature as well as a rejection of crudely economic approaches to the value of natural objects (a historical survey of the confrontation between Muir’s reverentialism and the human-centred conservationism of Gifford Pinchot (one of the major influences on the development of the US Forest Service) is provided in Norton 1991; also see Cohen 1984 and Nash (ed) 1990). Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac (1949), in particular, advocated the adoption of a “land ethic”:

That land is a community is the basic concept of ecology, but that land is to be loved and respected is an extension of ethics. (Leopold 1949: vii–ix) A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise. (Leopold 1949: 224–5)

However, Leopold himself provided no systematic ethical theory or framework to support these ethical ideas concerning the environment. His views therefore presented a challenge and opportunity for moral theorists: could some ethical theory be devised to justify the injunction to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biosphere?

The land ethic sketched by Leopold, attempting to extend our moral concern to cover the natural environment and its non-human contents, was drawn on explicitly by the Australian philosopher Richard Routley (later Sylvan). According to Routley (1973 (cf. Routley and Routley 1980)), the anthropocentrism imbedded in what he called the “dominant western view”, or “the western superethic”, is in effect “human chauvinism”. This view, he argued, is just another form of class chauvinism, which is simply based on blind class “loyalty” or prejudice, and unjustifiably discriminates against those outside the privileged class. Echoing the plot of a popular movie some three years earlier (see Lo and Brennan 2013), Routley speculates in his “last man” (and “last people”) arguments about a hypothetical situation in which the last person, surviving a world catastrophe, acts to ensure the elimination of all other living things and the last people set about destroying forests and ecosystems after their demise. From the human-chauvinistic (or absolutely anthropocentric) perspective, the last person would do nothing morally wrong, since his or her destructive act in question would not cause any damage to the interests and well-being of humans, who would by then have disappeared. Nevertheless, Routley points out that there is a moral intuition that the imagined last acts would be morally wrong. An explanation for this judgment, he argues, is that those non-human objects in the environment, whose destruction is ensured by the last person or last people, have intrinsic value, a kind of value independent of their usefulness for humans. From his critique, Routley concluded that the main approaches in traditional western moral thinking were unable to allow the recognition that natural things have intrinsic value, and that the tradition required overhaul of a significant kind.

Leopold’s idea that the “land” as a whole is an object of our moral concern also stimulated writers to argue for certain moral obligations toward ecological wholes, such as species, communities, and ecosystems, not just their individual constituents. The U.S.-based theologian and environmental philosopher Holmes Rolston III, for instance, argued that species protection was a moral duty (Rolston 1975). It would be wrong, he maintained, to eliminate a rare butterfly species simply to increase the monetary value of specimens already held by collectors. Like Routley’s “last man” arguments, Rolston’s example is meant to draw attention to a kind of action that seems morally dubious and yet is not clearly ruled out or condemned by traditional anthropocentric ethical views. Species, Rolston went on to argue, are intrinsically valuable and are usually more valuable than individual specimens, since the loss of a species is a loss of genetic possibilities and the deliberate destruction of a species would show disrespect for the very biological processes which make possible the emergence of individual living things (also see Rolston 1989, Ch 10). Natural processes deserve respect, according to Rolston’s quasi-religious perspective, because they constitute a nature (or God) which is itself intrinsically valuable (or sacred).

Meanwhile, the work of Christopher Stone (a professor of law at the University of Southern California) had become widely discussed. Stone (1972) proposes that trees and other natural objects should have at least the same standing in law as corporations. This suggestion was inspired by a particular case in which the Sierra Club had mounted a challenge against the permit granted by the U.S. Forest Service to Walt Disney Enterprises for surveys preparatory to the development of the Mineral King Valley, which was at the time a relatively remote game refuge, but not designated as a national park or protected wilderness area. The Disney proposal was to develop a major resort complex serving 14000 visitors daily to be accessed by a purpose-built highway through Sequoia National Park. The Sierra Club, as a body with a general concern for wilderness conservation, challenged the development on the grounds that the valley should be kept in its original state for its own sake.

Stone reasoned that if trees, forests and mountains could be given standing in law then they could be represented in their own right in the courts by groups such as the Sierra Club. Moreover, like any other legal person , these natural things could become beneficiaries of compensation if it could be shown that they had suffered compensatable injury through human activity. When the case went to the U.S. Supreme Court, it was determined by a narrow majority that the Sierra Club did not meet the condition for bringing a case to court, for the Club was unable and unwilling to prove the likelihood of injury to the interest of the Club or its members. In dissenting minority judgments, however, justices Douglas, Blackmun and Brennan mentioned Stone’s argument: his proposal to give legal standing to natural things, they said, would allow conservation interests, community needs and business interests to be represented, debated and settled in court. Stone’s work was later cited in the successful arguments to grant personhood to rivers and other natural features in various parts of the world. In some of these cases, Stone’s arguments—along with those of Arne Næss (see below)—have been said to provide analogues to indigenous understandings of the intrinsic value of the land and the interconnections of such understandings with human actions and ancestral spirituality (Morris and Ruru 2010, Kramm 2020). Similar suggestions have also been made about Leopold’s work, but such claims need to be interpreted with caution (White 2015).

Reacting to Stone’s proposal, Joel Feinberg (1974) raised a serious problem. Only items that have interests, Feinberg argued, can be regarded as having legal standing and, likewise, moral standing. For it is interests which are capable of being represented in legal proceedings and moral debates. This same point would also seem to apply to political debates. For instance, the movement for “animal liberation”, which also emerged strongly in the 1970s, can be thought of as a political movement aimed at representing the previously neglected interests of some animals (see Regan and Singer (eds.) 1976, Clark 1977, and also the entry on the moral status of animals ). Granted that some animals have interests that can be represented in this way, would it also make sense to speak of trees, forests, rivers, barnacles, or termites as having interests of a morally relevant kind? This issue was hotly contested in the years that followed. Meanwhile, John Passmore (1974) argued, like White, that the Judeo-Christian tradition of thought about nature, despite being predominantly “despotic”, contained resources for regarding humans as “stewards” or “perfectors” of God’s creation. Skeptical of the prospects for any radically new ethic, Passmore cautioned that traditions of thought could not be abruptly overhauled. Any change in attitudes to our natural surroundings which stood the chance of widespread acceptance, he argued, would have to resonate and have some continuities with the very tradition which had legitimized our destructive practices.

In sum, then, Leopold’s land ethic, the historical analyses of White and Passmore, the pioneering work of Routley, Stone and Rolston, and the warnings of scientists, had by the late 1970s focused the attention of philosophers and political theorists firmly on the environment. The confluence of ethical, political and legal debates about the environment, the emergence of philosophies to underpin animal rights activism and the puzzles over whether an environmental ethic would be something new rather than a modification or extension of existing ethical theories were reflected in wider social and political movements. The rise of environmental or “green” parties in Europe in the 1980s was accompanied by almost immediate schisms between groups known as “realists” versus “fundamentalists” (see Dobson 1990). The “realists” stood for reform environmentalism, working with business and government to soften the impact of pollution and resource depletion especially on fragile ecosystems or endangered species. The “fundies” argued for radical change, the setting of stringent new priorities, and even the overthrow of capitalism and liberal individualism, which were taken as the major ideological causes of anthropogenic environmental devastation. It is not clear, however, that collectivist or communist countries do particularly well in terms of their environmental record (see Dominick 1998). At the same time, the rise of “environmental authoritarianism” in some non-democratic countries appears to show that liberal democracies may not have a monopoly on effective action to support sustainability and biodiversity (Beeson 2010, Shahar 2015).

Underlying these political disagreements was the distinction between “shallow” and “deep” environmental movements, a distinction introduced in the early 1970s by another major influence on contemporary environmental ethics, the Norwegian philosopher and climber Arne Næss. Since the work of Næss has been significant in environmental politics, the discussion of his position is given in a separate section below.

3. Environmental Ethics and Politics

“Deep ecology” was born in Scandinavia, the result of discussions between Næss and his colleagues Sigmund Kvaløy and Nils Faarlund (see Næss 1973 and 1989; also see Witoszek and Brennan (eds.) 1999 for a historical survey and commentary on the development of deep ecology). All three shared a passion for the great mountains. On a visit to the Himalayas, they became impressed with aspects of “Sherpa culture” particularly when they found that their Sherpa guides regarded certain mountains as sacred and accordingly would not venture onto them. Subsequently, Næss formulated a position which extended the reverence the three Norwegians and the Sherpas felt for mountains to other natural things in general.

The “shallow ecology movement”, as Næss (1973) calls it, is the “fight against pollution and resource depletion”, the central objective of which is “the health and affluence of people in the developed countries.” The “deep ecology movement”, in contrast, endorses “biospheric egalitarianism”, the view that all living things are alike in having value in their own right, independent of their usefulness to others. The deep ecologist respects this intrinsic value, taking care, for example, when walking on the mountainside not to cause unnecessary damage to the plants.

Inspired by Spinoza’s metaphysics, another key feature of Næss’s deep ecology is the rejection of atomistic individualism. The idea that a human being is such an individual possessing a separate essence, Næss argues, radically separates the human self from the rest of the world. To make such a separation not only leads to selfishness towards other people, but also induces human selfishness towards nature. As a counter to egoism at both the individual and species level, Næss proposes an alternative relational “total-field image” of the world. According to this relationalism, organisms (human or otherwise) are best understood as “knots” in the biospherical net. The identity of a living thing is essentially constituted by its relations to other things in the world, especially its ecological relations to other living things. If people conceptualise themselves and the world in relational terms, the deep ecologists argue, then people will take better care of nature and the world in general.

As developed by Næss and others, the position also came to focus on the possibility of the identification of the human ego with nature. The idea is, briefly, that by identifying with nature I can enlarge the boundaries of the self beyond my skin. My larger—ecological—Self (the capital “S” emphasizes that I am something larger than my body and consciousness), deserves respect as well. To respect and to care for my Self is also to respect and to care for the natural environment, which is actually part of me and with which I should identify. Næss quotes the example of Saami people and their identification with the rivers on which they depend for sustenance. Recognition of such identification has underpinned the establishment in New Zealand of legal personhood for some rivers and other natural areas (Kramm 2020). “Self-realization” is thus the realization of a wider ecological Self. Næss maintains that the deep satisfaction that we receive from identification with nature and close partnership with other forms of life in nature contributes significantly to our life quality. (One historical antecedent to this kind of nature spiritualism is the romanticism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau as expressed in his last work, the Reveries of the Solitary Walker )

When Næss’s view crossed the Atlantic, it was sometimes merged with ideas emerging from Leopold’s land ethic (see Devall and Sessions 1985; also see Sessions (ed) 1995). But Næss—wary of the supposed totalitarian political implications of Leopold’s position that individual interests and well-being should be subordinated to the holistic good of the earth’s biotic community (see section 4 below)—took care to distance himself from advocating any sort of “land ethic”. (See Anker 1999 for cautions on interpreting Næss’s relationalism as an endorsement of the kind of holism displayed in the land ethic; cf. Grey 1993, Taylor and Zimmerman 2005). Some critics have argued that Næss’s deep ecology is no more than an extended social-democratic version of utilitarianism, which counts human interests in the same calculation alongside the interests of all natural things (e.g., trees, wolves, bears, rivers, forests and mountains) in the natural environment (see Witoszek 1997). However, Næss failed to explain in any detail how to make sense of the idea that oysters or barnacles, termites or bacteria could have interests of any morally relevant sort at all. Without an account of this, Næss’s early “biospheric egalitarianism”—that all living things whatsoever had a similar right to live and flourish—was an indeterminate principle in practical terms. It also remains unclear in what sense rivers, mountains and forests can be regarded as possessors of any kind of interests. This is an issue on which Næss always remained elusive.

Biospheric egalitarianism was modified in the 1980s to the weaker claim that the flourishing of both human and non-human life has value in itself, without any commitment to these values being equal. At the same time, Næss declared that his own favoured ecological philosophy—“Ecosophy T”, as he called it after his Tvergastein mountain cabin—was only one of several possible foundations for an environmental ethic. Deep ecology ceased to be a specific doctrine, but instead became a “platform” of eight simple points on which Næss hoped all deep green thinkers could agree. The platform was conceived as establishing a middle ground, between underlying orientations, whether indigenous, Christian, Buddhist, Daoist, process philosophy, or whatever, and the practical principles for action in specific situations, principles generated from the underlying philosophies. Thus the deep ecological movement became explicitly pluralist both morally and epistemologically (see Brennan 1999; c.f. Light 1996, Akamani 2020).

While Næss’s Ecosophy T sees human Self-realization as a solution to the environmental crises resulting from human selfishness and exploitation of nature, some of the followers of the deep ecology platform in the United States and Australia further argue that the expansion of the human self to include non-human nature is supported by the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory, which is said to have dissolved the boundaries between the observer and the observed (see Fox 1984, 1990, and Devall and Sessions 1985; cf. Callicott 1985). These “relationalist” developments of deep ecology are, however, criticized by some feminist theorists. The idea of nature as part of oneself, they argue, could justify the continued exploitation of nature instead. For one is presumably more entitled to treat oneself in whatever ways one likes than to treat another independent agent in whatever ways one likes. According to these feminist critics, the deep ecological theory of the “expanded self” is in effect a disguised form of human colonialism, unable to give nature its due as a genuine “other” independent of human interest and purposes (see Plumwood 1993, Ch. 7, 1999, and Warren 1999).

Meanwhile, other critics accuse deep ecology of being elitist in its attempts to preserve wilderness experiences for only a select group of economically and socio-politically well-off people. Ramachandra Guha (1989, 1999) for instance, depicts the activities of many western-based conservation groups as a new form of cultural imperialism, aimed at securing converts to conservationism (cf. Bookchin 1987 and Brennan 1998a). “Green missionaries”, as Guha calls them, represent a movement aimed at further dispossessing the world’s poor and indigenous people. “Putting deep ecology in its place,” he writes, “is to recognize that the trends it derides as “shallow” ecology might in fact be varieties of environmentalism that are more apposite, more representative and more popular in the countries of the South.” Although Næss himself repudiates suggestions that deep ecology is committed to any form of imperialism (see Witoszek and Brennan (eds.) 1999, Ch. 36–7 and 41), Guha’s criticism raises important questions about the application of deep ecological principles in different social, economic and cultural contexts. Finally, in other critiques, deep ecology is portrayed as having an inconsistent utopian vision (see Anker and Witoszek 1998).

Broadly speaking, a feminist issue is any that contributes in some way to understanding the oppression of women. Feminist theories attempt to analyze women’s oppression, its causes and consequences, and suggest strategies and directions for women’s liberation. By the mid 1970s, feminist writers had raised the issue of whether patriarchal modes of thinking encouraged not only widespread inferiorizing and colonizing of women, but also of people of colour, animals and nature. Sheila Collins (1974), for instance, argued that male-dominated culture or patriarchy is supported by four interlocking pillars: sexism, racism, class exploitation, and ecological destruction.

Emphasizing the importance of feminism to the environmental movement and various other liberation movements, some writers, such as Ynestra King (1989a and 1989b), argue that the domination of women by men is historically the original form of domination in human society, from which all other hierarchies—of rank, class, and political power—flow. For instance, human exploitation of nature may be seen as a manifestation and extension of the oppression of women, in that it is the result of associating nature with the female, which had been already inferiorized and oppressed by the male-dominating culture. But within the plurality of feminist positions, other writers, such as Val Plumwood (1993), understand the oppression of women as only one of the many parallel forms of oppression sharing and supported by a common ideological structure, in which one party (the colonizer, whether male, white or human) uses a number of conceptual and rhetorical devices to privilege its interests over that of the other party (the colonized: whether female, people of colour, or animals). Facilitated by a common structure, seemingly diverse forms of oppression can mutually reinforce each other (Warren 1987, 1990, 1994, Cheney 1989, and Plumwood 1993).

Not all feminist theorists would call that common underlying oppressive structure “androcentric” or “patriarchal”. But it is generally agreed that core features of the structure include dichotomies, hierarchical thinking, and a “logic of domination”, which are typical of, if not essential to, male-chauvinism. These patterns of thinking and conceptualizing the world, many feminist theorists argue, also nourish and sustain other forms of chauvinism including human-chauvinism (i.e., anthropocentrism), which is responsible for much human exploitation of, and destructiveness towards, nature. Writers comment on dichotomous forms of thinking which depict the world in polar opposite terms, such as male/female, masculinity/femininity, reason/emotion, freedom/necessity, active/passive, mind/body, pure/soiled, white/coloured, civilized/primitive, transcendent/immanent, human/animal, culture/nature. When these dichotomies involve hierarchy and domination they are often labelled "dualisms". Under the influence of such dualisms all the first items in these contrasting pairs are assimilated with each other, and all the second items are likewise linked with each other. For example, the male is seen to be associated with the rational, active, creative, Cartesian human mind, and civilized, orderly, transcendent culture; whereas the female is regarded as tied to the emotional, passive, determined animal body, and primitive, disorderly, immanent nature. These interlocking dualisms are not just descriptive dichotomies, according to the feminists, but involve a prescriptive privileging of one side of the opposed items over the other. Dualism confers superiority to everything on the male side, but inferiority to everything on the female side. The “logic of domination” then dictates that those on the superior side (e.g., men, rational beings, humans) are morally entitled to dominate and utilize those on the inferior side (e.g., women, beings lacking in rationality, non-humans) as mere means.

The problem with dualistic modes of thinking, however, is not just that they are epistemically unreliable. It is not just that the dominating party often falsely sees the dominated party as lacking (or possessing) the allegedly superior (or inferior) qualities, or that the dominated party often internalizes false stereotypes of itself given by its oppressors, or that stereotypical thinking often overlooks salient and important differences among individuals. More important, according to feminist analyses, the very premise of prescriptive dualism—the valuing of attributes of one polarized side and the devaluing of those of the other, the idea that domination and oppression can be justified by appealing to attributes like masculinity, rationality, being civilized or developed, etc.—is itself problematic.

Feminism represents a radical challenge for environmental thinking, politics, and traditional social ethical perspectives. It promises to link environmental questions with wider social problems concerning various kinds of discrimination and exploitation, and fundamental investigations of human psychology. However, whether there are conceptual, causal or merely contingent connections among the different forms of oppression and liberation remains a contested issue (see Green 1994). The term “ecofeminism” (first coined by Françoise d’Eaubonne in 1974) or “ecological feminism” was for a time generally applied to any view that combines environmental advocacy with feminist analysis. However, because of the varieties of, and disagreements among, feminist theories, the label may be too wide to be informative (see the entry on feminist environmental philosophy ).

An often overlooked source of ecological ideas is the work of the neo-Marxist Frankfurt School of critical theory founded by Max Horkheimer and Theodore Adorno (Horkheimer and Adorno 1969). While classical Marxists regard nature as a resource to be transformed by human labour and utilized for human purposes, Horkheimer and Adorno saw Marx himself as representative of the problem of “human alienation”. At the root of this alienation, they argue, is a narrow positivist conception of rationality—which sees rationality as an instrument for pursuing progress, power and technological control, and takes observation, measurement and the application of purely quantitative methods to be capable of solving all problems. Such a positivistic view of science combines determinism with optimism. Natural processes as well as human activities are seen to be predictable and manipulable. Nature (and, likewise, human nature) is no longer mysterious, uncontrollable, or fearsome. Instead, it is reduced to an object strictly governed by natural laws, which therefore can be studied, known, and employed to our benefit. By promising limitless knowledge and power, the positivism of science and technology not only removes our fear of nature, the critical theorists argue, but also destroys our sense of awe and wonder towards it. That is to say, positivism “disenchants” nature—along with everything that can be studied by the sciences, whether natural, social or human.

The progress in knowledge and material well-being may not be a bad thing in itself, where the consumption and control of nature is a necessary part of human life. However, the critical theorists argue that the positivistic disenchantment of natural things (and, likewise, of human beings—because they too can be studied and manipulated by science) disrupts our relationship with them, encouraging the undesirable attitude that they are nothing more than things to be probed, consumed and dominated. According to the critical theorists, the oppression of “outer nature” (i.e., the natural environment) through science and technology is bought at a very high price: the project of domination requires the suppression of our own “inner nature” (i.e., human nature)—e.g., human creativity, autonomy, and the manifold needs, vulnerabilities and longings at the centre of human life. To remedy such an alienation, the project of Horkheimer and Adorno is to replace the narrow positivistic and instrumentalist model of rationality with a more humanistic one, in which the values of the aesthetic, moral, sensuous and expressive aspects of human life play a central part. Thus, their aim is not to give up our rational faculties or powers of analysis and logic. Rather, the ambition is to arrive at a dialectical synthesis between Romanticism and Enlightenment, to return to anti-deterministic values of freedom, spontaneity and creativity.

In his later work, Adorno advocates a re-enchanting aesthetic attitude of “sensuous immediacy” towards nature. Not only do we stop seeing nature as primarily, or simply, an object of consumption, we are also able to be directly and spontaneously acquainted with nature without interventions from our rational faculties. According to Adorno, works of art, like natural things, always involve an “excess”, something more than their mere materiality and exchange value (see Vogel 1996, ch. 4.4 for a detailed discussion of Adorno’s views on art, labour and domination). The re-enchantment of the world through aesthetic experience, he argues, is also at the same time a re-enchantment of human lives and purposes. Adorno’s work remains largely unexplored in mainstream environmental philosophy, although the idea of applying critical theory (embracing techniques of deconstruction, psychoanalysis and radical social criticism) to both environmental issues and the writings of various ethical and political theorists has spawned the field of “écocritique” or “ecocriticism” (Vogel 1996, Luke 1997, van Wyk 1997, Dryzek 1997, Garrard 2014).

Some students of Adorno’s work have argued that his account of the role of “sensuous immediacy” can be understood as an attempt to defend a “legitimate anthropomorphism” that comes close to a weak form of animism (Bernstein 2001, 196). Others, more radical, have claimed to take inspiration from his notion of “non-identity”, which, they argue, can be used as the basis for a deconstruction of the notion of nature and perhaps even its elimination from ecocritical writing. For example, Timothy Morton argues that “putting something called Nature on a pedestal and admiring it from afar does for the environment what patriarchy does for the figure of Woman. It is a paradoxical act of sadistic admiration” (Morton 2007, 5), and that “in the name of all that we value in the idea of ‘nature’, [ecocritique] thoroughly examines how nature is set up as a transcendental, unified, independent category. Ecocritique does not think that it is paradoxical to say, in the name of ecology itself: ‘down with nature!’” (ibid., 13). In this vein, some thinkers have insisted that environmental ethics makes a mistake in drawing a significant distinction between the natural and the artificial (Vogel 2015). Such an idea, however, has drawn fierce criticism from some Marxist theorists who argue that the “end of nature” thesis is deeply confused (for example Malm 2018). It remains to be seen, however, whether the radical attempt to purge the concept of nature from ecocritical work meets with success. Likewise, it is unclear whether the dialectic project on which Horkheimer and Adorno embarked is coherent, and whether Adorno, in particular, has a consistent understanding of “nature” and “rationality” (see Eckersley 1992 and Vogel 1996, for a review of the Frankfurt School’s thinking about nature, and on rationality see also the entry on critical theory ).

On the other hand, the new animists have been much inspired by the serious way in which some indigenous peoples placate and interact with animals, plants and inanimate things through ritual, ceremony and other practices (for examples see Kimmerer 2020). According to the new animists, the replacement of traditional animism (the view that personalized souls are found in animals, plants, and other material objects) by a form of disenchanting positivism directly leads to an anthropocentric perspective, which is accountable for much human destructiveness towards nature. In a disenchanted world, there is no meaningful order of things or events outside the human domain, and there is no source of sacredness or dread of the sort felt by those who regard the natural world as peopled by divinities or demons (Stone 2006). When a forest is no longer sacred, there are no spirits to be placated and no mysterious risks associated with clear-felling it. A disenchanted nature is no longer alive. It commands no respect, reverence or love. It is nothing but a giant machine, to be mastered to serve human purposes. The new animists argue for reconceptualizing the boundary between persons and non-persons. For them, “living nature” comprises not only humans, animals and plants, but also mountains, forests, rivers, deserts, and even planets.

Whether the notion that a mountain or a tree is to be regarded as a person is taken literally or not, the attempt to engage with the surrounding world as if it consists of other persons might possibly provide the basis for a respectful attitude to nature (see Harvey 2005 for a popular account of the new animism). If disenchantment is a source of environmental problems and destruction, then the new animism can be regarded as attempting to re-enchant, and help to save, nature. More poetically, David Abram has argued that a phenomenological approach of the kind taken by Merleau-Ponty can reveal to us that we are part of the “common flesh” of the world, that we are in a sense the world thinking itself (Abram 1995).

In her work, Freya Mathews has tried to articulate a version of animism or panpsychism that captures ways in which the world (not just nature) contains many kinds of consciousness and sentience. For her, there is an underlying unity of mind and matter in that the world is a “self-realizing” system containing a multiplicity of other such systems (cf. Næss). According to Mathews, we are meshed in communication, and potential communication, with the “One” (the greater cosmic self) and its many lesser selves (Mathews 2003, 45–60). Materialism (the monistic theory that the world consists purely of matter), she argues, is self-defeating by encouraging a form of “collective solipsism” that treats the world either as unknowable or as a social-construction (Mathews 2005, 12). Mathews also takes inspiration from her interpretation of the core Daoist idea of wuwei as “letting be” and bringing about change through “effortless action”. The focus in environmental management, development and commerce should be on “synergy” with what is already in place rather than on demolition, replacement and disruption. Instead of bulldozing away old suburbs and derelict factories, the synergistic panpsychist sees these artefacts as themselves part of the living cosmos, hence part of what is to be respected. Likewise, instead of trying to eliminate feral or exotic plants and animals, and restore environments to some imagined pristine state, ways should be found—wherever possible—to promote synergies between the newcomers and the older native populations in ways that maintain ecological flows and promote the further unfolding and developing of ecological processes (Mathews 2004). Panpsychism, Mathews argues, frees us from the “ideological grid of capitalism”, can reduce our desire for consumer novelties, and can allow us and the world to grow old together with grace and dignity. Again, some of Mathews work echoes indigenous understandings of an enlarged subjectivity. As Deborah Rose puts it: “subjectivity in the form of sentience and agency is not solely a human prerogative but is located throughout other species and perhaps throughout country itself” (Rose 2005, 302).

In summary, if disenchantment is a source of environmentally destructive or uncaring attitudes, then both the aesthetic and the animist/panpsychist re-enchantment of the world are intended to offer an antidote to such attitudes, and perhaps also inspirations for new forms of managing and designing for sustainability. The general project of re-enchanting the world has surprising resonances with the views of others who draw more explicitly on scientific understandings of life on earth. Earth systems science, for example, draws on the Gaia hypothesis proposed by James Lovelock (Lovelock 1972, 1979) suggesting that living things acting together regulate significant aspects of the global environment (Lovelock and Margulis 1974). Later writers describe the Gaia hypothesis as conjecturing that something overlooked by previous scientific thinking was of vital importance to understanding the one thing that supports all life on earth, namely a great stabilizing feedback system which regulates itself in a way that maintains the habitability of the planet (Lenton et al . 2020). This feedback system is itself under threat from a changing climate, human overpopulation and reductions in biodiversity (see further section 6 below and also Latour 2017). In place of a vision of a grand cosmic self, champions of Gaia theory argue for recognizing the value of Life itself, where the capital "L" draws attention to the great feedback system—a single entity comprising all the living things descended from the last universal common ancestor (Mariscal and Dolittle 2008).

Apart from feminist-environmentalist theories and Næss’s deep ecology, Murray Bookchin’s “social ecology” has also claimed to be radical, subversive, or countercultural (see Bookchin 1980, 1987, 1990). Bookchin’s version of critical theory takes the “outer” physical world as constituting what he calls “first nature”, from which culture or “second nature” has evolved. Environmentalism, in his view, is a social movement, and the problems it confronts are social problems. While Bookchin is prepared, like Horkheimer and Adorno, to regard (first) nature as an aesthetic and sensuous marvel, he regards our intervention in it as necessary. He suggests that we can choose to put ourselves at the service of natural evolution, to help maintain complexity and diversity, diminish suffering and reduce pollution. Bookchin’s social ecology recommends that we use our gifts of sociability, communication and intelligence as if we were “nature rendered conscious”, instead of turning them against the very source and origin from which such gifts derive. Exploitation of nature should be replaced by a richer form of life devoted to nature’s preservation.

John Clark has argued that social ecology is heir to a historical, communitarian tradition of thought that includes not only the anarchist Peter Kropotkin, but also the nineteenth century socialist geographer Elisée Reclus, the eccentric Scottish thinker Patrick Geddes and the latter’s disciple, Lewis Mumford (Clark 1998). Ramachandra Guha has described Mumford as “the pioneer American social ecologist” (Guha 1996, 210). Mumford adopted a regionalist perspective, arguing that strong regional centres of culture are the basis of “active and securely grounded local life” (Mumford 1944, 403). Like the pessimists in critical theory, Mumford was worried about the emergence under industrialised capitalism of a “megamachine”, one that would oppress and dominate human creativity and freedom, and one that—despite being a human product—operates in a way that is out of our control. While Bookchin is more of a technological optimist than Mumford, both writers have inspired a regional turn in environmental thinking. Bioregionalism gives regionalism an environmental twist. This is the view that natural features should provide the defining conditions for places of community, and that secure and satisfying local lives are led by those who know a place, have learned its lore and who adapt their lifestyle to its affordances by developing its potential within ecological limits. Such a life, the bioregionalists argue, will enable people to enjoy the fruits of self-liberation and self-development (see the essays in List 1993, and the book-length treatment in Thayer 2003, for an introduction to bioregional thought).

However, critics have asked why natural features should be significant in defining the places in which communities are to be built, and have puzzled over exactly which natural features these should be—geological, ecological, climatic, hydrological, and so on (see Brennan 1998b). If relatively small, bioregional communities are to be home to flourishing human societies, then a question also arises over the nature of the laws and punishments that will prevail in them, and also of their integration into larger regional and global legal, political and economic groupings. For anarchists and other critics of the predominant social order, a return to self-governing and self-sufficient regional communities is often depicted as liberating and refreshing. But for the skeptics, the worry remains that the bioregional vision is politically over-optimistic and is open to the establishment of illiberal, stifling and undemocratic communities. Further, given its emphasis on local self-sufficiency and the virtue of life in small communities, a question arises over whether bioregionalism is workable in an overcrowded planet. Later bioregional proposals have identified ways of connecting with nature by showing stewardship for green infrastructure within cities (Andersson et al. 2014).

Deep ecology, feminism, and social ecology had a considerable impact on the development of political positions in regard to the environment. Feminist analyses have often been welcomed for the psychological insight they bring to several social, moral and political problems. There is, however, considerable unease about the implications of critical theory, social ecology and some varieties of deep ecology and animism. Some writers have argued, for example, that critical theory is bound to be ethically anthropocentric, with nature as no more than a “social construction” whose value ultimately depends on human determinations (see Vogel 1996). Others have argued that the demands of “deep” green theorists and activists cannot be accommodated within contemporary theories of liberal politics and social justice (see Ferry 1995). A further suggestion is that there is a need to reassess traditional theories such as virtue ethics, which has its origins in ancient Greek philosophy (see the following section) within the context of a form of stewardship similar to that earlier endorsed by Passmore (see Barry 1999). If this last claim is correct, then the radical activist need not, after all, look for philosophical support in radical, or countercultural, theories of the sort deep ecology, feminism, bioregionalism and social ecology claim to be (but see Zimmerman 1994).

4. Traditional Ethical Theories and Contemporary Environment Ethics

Although environmental ethicists often try to distance themselves from the anthropocentrism embedded in traditional ethical views (Passmore 1974, Norton 1991 are exceptions), they also quite often draw their theoretical resources from traditional ethical systems and theories. Consider the following two basic moral questions: (1) What kinds of thing are intrinsically valuable, good or bad? (2) What makes an action right or wrong?

Consequentialist ethical theories consider intrinsic “value” / “disvalue” or “goodness” / “badness” to be more fundamental moral notions than “rightness” / “wrongness”, and maintain that whether an action is right/wrong is determined by whether its consequences are good/bad. From this perspective, answers to question (2) are informed by answers to question (1). For instance, utilitarianism, a paradigm case of consequentialism, regards pleasure (or, more broadly construed, the satisfaction of interest, desire, and/or preference) as the only intrinsic value in the world, whereas pain (or the frustration of desire, interest, and/or preference) is the only intrinsic disvalue, and maintains that right actions are those that would produce the greatest balance of pleasure over pain (see the entry on consequentialism ).

As the utilitarian focus is the balance of pleasure and pain as such, the question of to whom a pleasure or pain belongs is irrelevant to the calculation and assessment of the rightness or wrongness of actions. Hence, the eighteenth century utilitarian Jeremy Bentham (1789), and later Peter Singer (1993), have argued that the interests of all the sentient beings (i.e., beings who are capable of experiencing pleasure or pain)—including non-human ones—affected by an action should be taken equally into consideration in assessing the action. Furthermore, rather like Routley (see section 2 above), Singer argues that the anthropocentric privileging of members of the species Homo sapiens is arbitrary, and that it is a kind of “speciesism” as unjustifiable as sexism and racism. Singer regards the animal liberation movement as comparable to the liberation movements of women and people of colour. Unlike the environmental philosophers who attribute intrinsic value to the natural environment and its inhabitants, Singer and utilitarians in general attribute intrinsic value to the experience of pleasure or interest satisfaction as such, not to the beings who have the experience. Similarly, for the utilitarian, non-sentient objects in the environment such as plant species, rivers, mountains, and landscapes, all of which are the objects of moral concern for environmentalists, are of no intrinsic but at most instrumental value to the satisfaction of sentient beings (see Singer 1993, Ch. 10). Furthermore, because right actions, for the utilitarian, are those that maximize the overall balance of interest satisfaction over frustration, practices such as whale-hunting and the killing of an elephant for ivory, which cause suffering to non-human animals, might turn out to be right after all: such practices might produce considerable amounts of interest-satisfaction for human beings, which, on the utilitarian calculation, outweigh the non-human interest-frustration involved. As the result of all the above considerations, it is unclear to what extent a utilitarian ethic can also be an environmental ethic. This point may not so readily apply to a wider consequentialist approach, which attributes intrinsic value not only to pleasure or satisfaction, but also to various objects and processes in the natural environment.

Deontological ethical theories, in contrast, maintain that whether an action is right or wrong is for the most part independent of whether its consequences are good or bad (see the entry on deontological ethics ). From the deontologist perspective, there are several distinct moral rules or duties (e.g., “not to kill or otherwise harm the innocent”, “not to lie”, “to respect the rights of others”, “to keep promises”), the observance/violation of which is intrinsically right/wrong; i.e., right/wrong in itself regardless of consequences. When asked to justify an alleged moral rule, duty or its corresponding right, deontologists may appeal to the intrinsic value of those beings to whom it applies. For instance, “animal rights” advocate Tom Regan (1983) argues that those animals with intrinsic value (or what he calls “inherent value”) have the moral right to respectful treatment, which then generates a general moral duty on our part not to treat them as mere means to other ends. We have, in particular, a prima facie moral duty not to harm them. Regan maintains that certain practices (such as sport or commercial hunting, and experimentation on animals) violate the moral right of intrinsically valuable animals to respectful treatment. Such practices, he argues, are intrinsically wrong regardless of whether or not some better consequences ever flow from them. Exactly which animals have intrinsic value and therefore the moral right to respectful treatment? Regan’s answer is: those that meet the criterion of being the “subject-of-a-life”. To be such a subject is a sufficient (though not necessary) condition for having intrinsic value, and to be a subject-of-a-life involves, among other things, having sense-perceptions, beliefs, desires, motives, memory, a sense of the future, and a psychological identity over time.

Some authors have extended concern for individual well-being further, arguing for the intrinsic value of organisms achieving their own good, whether those organisms are capable of consciousness or not. Paul Taylor’s version of this view (1981 and 1986), which we might call biocentrism , is a somewhat deontological example. He argues that each individual living thing in nature—whether it is an animal, a plant, or a micro-organism—is a “teleological-center-of-life” having a good or well-being of its own which can be enhanced or damaged, and that all individuals who are teleological-centers-of life have equal intrinsic value (or what he calls “inherent worth”) which entitles them to moral respect. Furthermore, Taylor maintains that the intrinsic value of wild living things generates a prima facie moral duty on our part to preserve or promote their goods as ends in themselves, and that any practices which treat those beings as mere means and thus display a lack of respect for them are intrinsically wrong. For a summary and overview of Taylor’s biocentric ethic, see Brennan and Lo 2010, 69—86. A biologically detailed defence of the idea that living things have representations and goals and hence have moral worth is found in Agar 2001. Unlike Taylor’s egalitarian and deontological biocentrism, Robin Attfield (1987) argues for a hierarchical view that while all beings having a good of their own have intrinsic value, some of them (e.g., persons) have intrinsic value to a greater extent. Attfield also endorses a form of consequentialism which takes into consideration, and attempts to balance, the many and possibly conflicting goods of different living things (see also Varner 1998 for a defense of biocentric individualism with affinities to both consequentialist and deontological approaches). However, some critics have pointed out that the notion of biological good or well-being is only descriptive not prescriptive (see Williams 1992 and O’Neill 1993, Ch. 2). For instance, even if HIV has a good of its own this does not mean that we ought to assign any positive moral weight to the realization of that good.

Subsequently the distinction between these two traditional approaches has taken its own specific form of development in environmental philosophy. Instead of pitting conceptions of value against conceptions of rights, it has been suggested that there may be two different conceptions of intrinsic value in play in discussion about environmental good and evil. One the one side, there is the intrinsic value of states of affairs that are to be promoted—and this is the focus of the consequentialist thinkers. On the other (deontological) hand there is the intrinsic values of entities to be respected (see Bradley 2006, McShane 2014). These two different foci for the notion of intrinsic value still provide room for fundamental argument between deontologists and consequentialist to continue, albeit in a somewhat modified form.

Note that the ethics of animal liberation or animal rights and biocentrism are both individualistic in that their various moral concerns are directed towards individuals only—not ecological wholes such as species, populations, biotic communities, and ecosystems. None of these is sentient, a subject-of-a-life, or a teleological-center-of-life, but the preservation of these collective entities is a major concern for many environmentalists. Moreover, the goals of animal liberationists, such as the reduction of animal suffering and death, may conflict with the goals of environmentalists. For example, the preservation of the integrity of an ecosystem may require the culling of feral animals or of some indigenous animal populations that threaten to destroy fragile habitats. So there are disputes about whether the ethics of animal liberation is a proper branch of environmental ethics (see Callicott 1980, 1988, Sagoff 1984, Jamieson 1998, Crisp 1998 and Varner 2000).

Criticizing the individualistic approach in general for failing to accommodate conservation concerns for ecological wholes, J. Baird Callicott (1980) once advocated a version of land-ethical holism which takes Leopold’s statement “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise” to be the supreme deontological principle. In this theory, the earth’s biotic community per se is the sole locus of intrinsic value, whereas the value of its individual members is merely instrumental and dependent on their contribution to the “integrity, stability, and beauty” of the larger community. A straightforward implication of this version of the land ethic is that an individual member of the biotic community ought to be sacrificed whenever that is needed for the protection of the holistic good of the community. For instance, Callicott maintains that if culling a white-tailed deer is necessary for the protection of the holistic biotic good, then it is a land-ethical requirement to do so. But, to be consistent, the same point also applies to human individuals because they are also members of the biotic community. Not surprisingly, the misanthropy implied by Callicott’s land-ethical holism was widely criticized and regarded as a reductio of the position (see Aiken (1984), Kheel (1985), Ferré (1996), and Shrader-Frechette (1996)). Tom Regan (1983, p.362), in particular, condemned the holistic land ethic’s disregard of the rights of the individual as “environmental fascism”. Since then commentators have noted the links between fascism and conservation thinking (Biehl and Staudenmaier 2011). The subsequent emergence of explicitly ecofascist on-line movements and terrorist acts that claim to be ecologically-inspired (Lawton 2019) lead one writer to declare that there is a danger the world will enter an age of “climate barbarism”(Klein 2019).

Under pressure from the charge of ecofascism and misanthropy, Callicott (1989 Ch. 5, and 1999, Ch. 4) later revises his neo-Leopodian position to maintain that the biotic community (indeed, any community to which humans belong) as well as its individual members (indeed, any individual who shares with us membership in some common community) all have intrinsic value. To further distance himself from the charge of ecofascism, Callicott introduced explicit principles which prioritize obligations to human communities over those to natural ones. He called these “second-order” principles for specifying the conditions under which the land ethic’s holistic and individualistic obligations were to be ranked. As he put it:

... obligations generated by membership in more venerable and intimate communities take precedence over these generated in more recently-emerged and impersonal communities... The second second-order principle is that stronger interests (for lack of a better word) generate duties that take precedence over duties generated by weaker interests. (Callicott 1999, 76)

Lo 2001 provides an overview and critique of Callicott’s changing position over two decades, while Ouderkirk and Hill (eds.) 2002 gives an overview of debates between Callicott and others concerning the metaethical and metaphysical foundations for the land ethic and also its historical antecedents. As Lo points out, the final modified version of the land ethic needs more than two second-order principles, since a third-order principle is needed to specify Callicott’s implicit view that the second second-order principle generally countermands the first one when they come into conflict (Lo 2001, 345). In later work, Callicott follows Lo’s suggestion, while cautioning against aiming for too much precision in specifying the demands of the land ethic (Callicott 2013, 66–7). While Callicott’s reading of Leopold is widely regarded as authoritative, later writers have queried whether Leopold might be better interpreted a a moral pluralist (Dixon 2017) and have also raised doubts about the form of Darwinism that Leopold is supposed to have espoused (Millstein 2015). For further critique of Callicott on Leopold, see also Newman, Varner and Linquist 2017, ch.10.

The controversy surrounding Callicott’s original position, however, has inspired efforts in environmental ethics to investigate possibilities of attributing intrinsic value to ecological wholes, not just their individual constituent parts. Following in Callicott’s footsteps, and inspired by Næss’s relational account of value, Warwick Fox has championed a theory of “responsive cohesion” which aims to give supreme moral priority to the maintenance of ecosystems and the biophysical world (Fox 2007). It remains to be seen if this position escapes the charges of misanthropy and totalitarianism laid against earlier holistic and relational theories of value.

Individual natural entities (whether sentient or not, living or not), Andrew Brennan (1984, 2014) argues, are not designed by anyone to fulfill any purpose and therefore lack “intrinsic function” (i.e., the function of a thing that constitutes part of its essence or identity conditions). This, he proposes, is a reason for thinking that individual natural entities should not be treated as mere instruments, and thus a reason for assigning them intrinsic value. Furthermore, he argues that the same moral point applies to the case of natural ecosystems, to the extent that they lack intrinsic function. In the light of Brennan’s proposal, Eric Katz (1991 and 1997) argues that all natural entities, whether individuals or wholes, have intrinsic value in virtue of their ontological independence from human purpose, activity, and interest, and maintains the deontological principle that nature as a whole is an “autonomous subject” which deserves moral respect and must not be treated as a mere means to human ends. Carrying the project of attributing intrinsic value to nature to its ultimate form, Robert Elliot (1997) argues that naturalness itself is a property in virtue of possessing which all natural things, events, and states of affairs, attain intrinsic value. Furthermore, Elliot argues that even a consequentialist, who in principle allows the possibility of trading off intrinsic value from naturalness for intrinsic value from other sources, could no longer justify such kind of trade-off in reality. This is because the reduction of intrinsic value due to the depletion of naturalness on earth, according to him, has reached such a level that any further reduction of it could not be compensated by any amount of intrinsic value generated in other ways, no matter how great it is.

As the notion of “natural” is understood in terms of the lack of human contrivance and is often opposed to the notion of “artifactual”, one much contested issue concerns the value of those parts of nature that have been touched by human artifice—for instance, previously degraded natural environments which have been humanly restored. Based on the premise that the properties of being naturally evolved and having a natural continuity with the remote past are “value adding” (i.e., adding intrinsic value to those things which possess those two properties), Elliot argues that even a perfectly restored environment would necessarily lack those two value-adding properties and therefore be less valuable than the originally undegraded natural environment. Katz, on the other hand, argues that a restored nature is really just an artifact designed and created for the satisfaction of human ends, and that the value of restored environments is instrumental. He further argues that restoration is a form of the “domination of reality” and controversially compares such domination to Nazi policies of xenophobia, nativism and eliminationsm (Katz 2021). Critics have pointed out that advocates of a moral dichotomy between the natural and the artifactual run the risk of diminishing the value of human life and culture, and fail to recognize that the natural environments interfered with by humans may still have morally important qualities other than pure naturalness (see Lo 1999, and Katz’s response in Katz 2012).

Two other issues central to this debate are that the key concept “natural” seems ambiguous in many different ways (see Hume 1751, App. 3; Mill 1874; Brennan [1988] 2014; Ch. 6; Elliot 1997, Ch. 4), and that those who argue that human interference reduces the intrinsic value of nature seem to have simply assumed the crucial premise that naturalness is a source of intrinsic value. Some thinkers maintain that the natural, or the “wild” construed as that which “is not humanized” (Hettinger and Throop 1999, p. 12) or to some degree “not under human control” (ibid., p. 13) is intrinsically valuable. Yet, as Bernard Williams points out (Williams 1992), we may, paradoxically, need to use our technological powers to retain a sense of something not being in our power. The retention of wild areas may thus involve planetary and ecological management to maintain, or even “imprison” such areas (Birch 1990), raising a question over the extent to which national parks and wilderness areas are free from our control. An anlogy with gardening has sometimes been used to explore the nature of restoration (Allison 2004).

Given the significance of the concept of naturalness in these debates, it is perhaps surprising that there has been relatively little analysis of that concept itself in environmental thought. In his pioneering work on the ethics of the environment, Holmes Rolston has worked with a number of different conceptions of the natural (see Brennan and Lo 2010, pp.116–23, for an analysis of three senses of the term “natural” that may be found in Rolston’s work). An explicit attempt to provide a conceptual analysis of a different sort is found in Siipi 2008, while an account of naturalness linking this to historical narratives of place is given in O’Neill, Holland and Light 2008, ch. 8 (compare the response to this in Siipi 2011). For reflections on how to protect “one nature with several representations” from the perspective of science policy see Ducarme and Couvet 2020.

Finally, as an alternative to consequentialism and deontology both of which consider “thin” concepts such as “goodness” and “rightness” as essential to morality, virtue ethics proposes to understand morality—and assess the ethical quality of actions—in terms of “thick” concepts such as “kindness”, “honesty”, “sincerity” and “justice”. These, and other excellent traits of character are virtues (see the entry on virtue ethics ). As virtue ethics speaks quite a different language from the other two kinds of ethical theory, its theoretical focus is not so much on what kinds of things are good/bad, or what makes an action right/wrong. Indeed, the richness of the language of virtues, and the emphasis on moral character, is sometimes cited as a reason for exploring a virtues-based approach to the complex and always-changing questions of sustainability and environmental care (Hill 1983, Wensveen 2000, Sandler 2007). One question central to virtue ethics is what the moral reasons are for acting one way or another. For instance, from the perspective of virtue ethics, kindness and loyalty would be moral reasons for helping a friend in hardship. These are quite different from the deontologist’s reason (that the action is demanded by a moral rule) or the consequentialist reason (that the action will lead to a better over-all balance of good over evil in the world). From the perspective of virtue ethics, the motivation and justification of actions are both inseparable from the character traits of the acting agent. Furthermore, unlike deontology or consequentialism the moral focus of which is other people or states of the world, one central issue for virtue ethics is how to live a flourishing human life, this being a central concern of the moral agent himself or herself. “Living virtuously” is Aristotle’s recipe for flourishing. Versions of virtue ethics advocating virtues such as “benevolence”, “piety”, “filiality”, and “courage”, have also been held by thinkers in the Chinese Confucian tradition. The connection between morality and psychology is another core subject of investigation for virtue ethics. It is sometimes suggested that human virtues, which constitute an important aspect of a flourishing human life, must be compatible with human needs and desires, and perhaps also sensitive to individual affection and temperaments. As its central focus is human flourishing as such, virtue ethics may seem unavoidably anthropocentric and unable to support a genuine moral concern for the non-human environment. But just as Aristotle has argued that a flourishing human life requires friendships and one can have genuine friendships only if one genuinely values, loves, respects, and cares for one’s friends for their own sake, not merely for the benefits that they may bring to oneself, some have argued that a flourishing human life requires the moral capacities to value, love, respect, and care for the non-human natural world as an end in itself (see O’Neill 1992, O’Neill 1993, Barry 1999). Not only Aristotle, but also Kant can be used in support of such a position. Toby Svoboda argues, for example, that even indirect duties to protect nature can be the basis of good moral reasons to promote the flourishing of natural things, regardless of whether doing so promotes human interests (Svoboda 2019). Other virtue ethicists claim to be able to provie an account of what it is to feel guilt about damage people have done to the environment and to make sense of the idea of a genuine feeling of gratitude toward nature “for being what it is” (Wood 2019).

Despite the variety of positions in environmental ethics developed over the last thirty years, they have often focused on issues concerned with wilderness and the reasons for its preservation (see Callicott and Nelson 1998 for a collection of essays on the ideas and moral significance of wilderness). The importance of wilderness experience to the human psyche has been emphasized by many environmental philosophers. Næss, for instance, urges us to ensure we spend time dwelling in situations of intrinsic value, whereas Rolston seeks “re-creation” of the human soul by meditating in the wilderness. Likewise, the critical theorists believe that aesthetic appreciation of nature has the power to re-enchant human life. As wilderness becomes increasingly rare, people’s exposure to wild things in their natural state has become reduced, and according to some authors this may reduce the chance of our lives and other values being transformed as a result of interactions with nature. An argument by Bryan Norton draws attention to an analogy with music. Someone exposed for the first time to a new musical genre may undergo a transformation in musical preferences, tastes and values as a result of the experience (Norton 1987. Such a transformation can affect their other preferences and desires too, in both direct and indirect ways (see Sarkar 2005, ch. 4, esp. pp. 82–7). In the attempt to preserve opportunities for experiences that can change or enhance people’s valuations of nature, there has been a move since the early 2000s to find ways of rewilding degraded environments, and even parts of cities (Fraser 2009, Monbiot 2013). Note that such rewilding is distinct from more traditional forms of restoration, since it need not be pursued with the intention of re-creating some original landscape or biological system (duToit and Pettorelli 2019). A spectacular form of rewilding may be associated with efforts to resurrect some long-dead species by using genetic technology to combine the DNA of an extinct species with the DNA of some closely-related contemporary species. For a review of some of the issues about de-extinction see Minteer 2015, and also Siipi and Finkelman 2017. Cautions about thinking of de-extinction as radically different from more conventional conservation and restoration practices are expressed in Novak 2018.

By contrast to the focus on wild places, relatively little attention has been paid to the built environment, although this is the one in which most people spend most of their time. In post-war Britain, for example, cheaply constructed new housing developments were often poor replacements for traditional communities. They have been associated with lower amounts of social interaction and increased crime compared with the earlier situation. The destruction of highly functional high-density traditional housing, indeed, might be compared with the destruction of highly diverse ecosystems and biotic communities. Likewise, the loss of the world’s huge diversity of natural languages has been mourned by many, not just professionals with an interest in linguistics. Urban and linguistic environments are just two of the many “places” inhabited by humans. Some philosophical theories about natural environments and objects have potential to be extended to cover built environments and non-natural objects of several sorts (see King 2000, Light 2001, Palmer 2003, while Fox 2007 aims to include both built and natural environments in the scope of a single ethical theory). Certainly there are many parallels between natural and artificial domains: for example, many of the conceptual problems involved in discussing the restoration of natural objects such as landscapes and ecosystems also appear in the parallel context of restoring human-made objects such as buildings and works of art (Vogel 2015).

Lovers of wilderness sometimes consider the high human populations in some developing countries as a key problem underlying the environmental crisis. Rolston (1996), for instance, claims that (some) humans are a kind of planetary “cancer”. He maintains that while “feeding people always seems humane, ... when we face up to what is really going on, by just feeding people, without attention to the larger social results, we could be feeding a kind of cancer.” This remark is meant to justify the view that saving nature should, in some circumstances, have a higher priority than feeding people. But such a view has been criticized for seeming to reveal a degree of misanthropy, directed at those human beings least able to protect and defend themselves (see Attfield 1998, Brennan 1998a). The empirical basis of Rolston’s claims has been queried by work showing that poor people are often extremely good environmental managers (Martinez-Alier 2002). Guha’s worries about the elitist and “missionary” tendencies of some kinds of deep green environmentalism in certain rich western countries can be quite readily extended to theorists such as Rolston (Guha 1999). Can such an apparently elitist sort of wilderness ethics ever be democratised? How can the psychically-reviving power of the wild become available to those living in the slums of Kolkata or São Paolo? These questions so far lack convincing answers.

Connections between environmental destruction, unequal resource consumption, poverty and the global economic order have been discussed by political scientists, development theorists, geographers and economists as well as by philosophers. Links between economics and environmental ethics are particularly well established. Work by Mark Sagoff (1988), for instance, has played a major part in bringing the two fields together. He argues that “as citizens rather than consumers” people are concerned about values, which cannot plausibly be reduced to mere ordered preferences or quantified in monetary terms. Sagoff’s distinction between people as consumers and people as citizens was intended to blunt the use of cost-benefit analysis as the final arbiter in discussions about nature’s value. Of course, spouses take out insurance on each others’ lives. We pay extra for travel insurance to cover the cost of cancellation, illness, or lost baggage. Such actions are economically rational. They provide us with some compensation in case of loss. No-one, however, would regard insurance payments as replacing lost limbs, a loved one or even the joys of a cancelled vacation. So it is for nature, according to Sagoff. We can put dollar values on a stand of timber, a reef, a beach, a national park. We can measure the travel costs, the money spent by visitors, the real estate values, the park fees and all the rest. But these dollar measures do not tell us the value of nature any more than my insurance premiums tell you the value of a human life (also see Shrader-Frechette 1987, O’Neill 1993, and Brennan 1995). If Sagoff is right, cost-benefit analysis cannot be a basis for an ethic of sustainability any more than for an ethic of biodiversity. The potentially misleading appeal to economic reason used to justify the expansion of the corporate sector has also come under critical scrutiny by globalisation theorists (see Korten 1999). These critiques do not aim to eliminate economics from environmental thinking; rather, they resist any reductive, and strongly anthropocentric, tendency to believe that all social and environmental problems are fundamentally or essentially economic. The development of ecological economics explores the scope for common ground between economists and environmental policy-makers, and also the role of environmental ethics in such discussions (Washington and Maloney 2020).

Other interdisciplinary approaches link environmental ethics with biology, policy studies, public administration, political theory, cultural history, post-colonial theory, literature, geography, and human ecology (for some examples, see Norton, Hutchins, Stevens, Maple 1995, Shrader-Frechette 1984, Gruen and Jamieson (eds.) 1994, Karliner 1997, Diesendorf and Hamilton 1997, Schmidtz and Willott 2002). Many assessments of issues concerned with biodiversity, ecosystem health, poverty, environmental justice and sustainability look at both human and environmental issues, eschewing in the process commitment either to a purely anthropocentric or purely ecocentric perspective (see Hayward and O’Neill 1997, and Dobson 1999 for collections of essays looking at the links between sustainability, justice, welfare and the distribution of environmental goods). The future development of environmental ethics depends on these, and other interdisciplinary synergies, as much as on its anchorage within philosophy (Dereniowska and Matzke 2014).

6. Sustainability and Climate Change

The Convention on Biological Diversity discussed in the supplementary document on Biodiversity Preservation was influenced by Our Common Future , an earlier United Nations document on sustainability produced by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987). The commission was chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway at the time, and the report is sometimes known as the Brundtland Report. This report noted the increasing tide of evidence that planetary systems vital to supporting life on earth were under strain. The key question it raised is whether it is equitable to sacrifice options for future well-being in favour of supporting current lifestyles, especially the comfortable, and sometimes lavish, forms of life enjoyed in the rich countries. As Bryan Norton puts it, the world faces a global challenge to see whether different human groups, with widely varying perspectives, can perhaps “accept responsibility to maintain a non-declining set of opportunities based on possible uses of the environment”. The preservation of options for the future can be readily linked to notions of equity if it is agreed that “the future ought not to face, as a result of our actions today, a seriously reduced range of options and choices, as they try to adapt to the environment that they face” (Norton 2001: 419). Note that references to “the future” need not be limited to the future of human beings only. In keeping with the non-anthropocentric focus of much environmental philosophy, a care for sustainability and biodiversity can embrace a care for opportunities available to non-human living things.

However, when the concept “sustainable development” was first articulated in the Brundtland Report, the emphasis was clearly anthropocentric. In face of increasing evidence that planetary systems vital to life-support were under strain, the concept of sustainable development is constructed in the report to encourage certain globally coordinated directions and types of economic and social development. The report defines “sustainable development” in the following way:

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of “needs”, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. Thus the goals of economic and social development must be defined in terms of sustainability in all countries—developed or developing, market-oriented or centrally planned. Interpretations will vary, but must share certain general features and must flow from a consensus on the basic concept of sustainable development and on a broad strategic framework for achieving it. (WCED 1987, Ch. 2, paragraphs 1–2)

The report goes on to argue that “the industrial world has already used much of the planet’s ecological capital. This inequality is the planet’s main ‘environmental’ problem; it is also its main ‘development’ problem” (WCED 1987, Overview, paragraph 17). In the concept of sustainable development the report combines the resource economist’s notion of “sustainable yield” with the recognition that developing countries of the world are entitled to economic growth and prosperity. The notion of sustainable yield involves thinking of forests, rivers, oceans and other ecosystems, including the natural species living in them, as a stock of “ecological capital” from which all kinds of goods and services flow. Provided the flow of such goods and services does not reduce the capacity of the capital itself to maintain its productivity, the use of the systems in question is regarded as sustainable. Thus, the report argues that “maximum sustainable yield must be defined after taking into account system-wide effects of exploitation” of ecological capital (WCED 1987, Ch. 2, paragraph 11).

There are clear philosophical, political and economic precursors to the Brundtland concept of sustainability. For example, John Stuart Mill (1848, IV. 6. 1) distinguished between the “stationary state” and the “progressive state” and argued that at the end of the progressive state lies the stationary state, since “the increase of wealth is not boundless”. Mill also recognized a debt to the gloomy prognostications of Thomas Malthus, who had conjectured that population tends to increase geometrically while food resources at best increase only arithmetically, so that demand for food will ultimately outstrip the supply (see Milgate and Stimson 2009, Ch. 7, and the discussion of Malthus in the Political Economy section of the Spring 2016 version of the entry on Mill ). Reflection on Malthus led Mill to argue for restraining human population growth:

Even in a progressive state of capital, in old countries, a conscientious or prudential restraint on population is indispensable, to prevent the increase of numbers from outstripping the increase of capital, and the condition of the classes who are at the bottom of society from being deteriorated (Mill 1848, IV. 6. 1).

Such warnings resonate with pessimism about increasing human population and its impact on the poorest people, as well as on loss of biodiversity, fresh water scarcity, overconsumption and climate change. In their controversial work The Population Bomb , Paul and Anne Ehrlich, argue that without restrictions on population growth, including the imposition of mandatory birth control, the world faced “mass starvation” in the short term (Ehrlich 1968). This prediction was not fulfilled. In a subsequent defence of their early work, the Ehrlichs declared that the most serious flaw in their original analysis “was that it was much too optimistic about the future”, and comment that “Since The Bomb was written, increases in greenhouse gas flows into the atmosphere, a consequence of the near doubling of the human population and the near tripling of global consumption, indicate that the results will likely be catastrophic climate disruption caused by greenhouse heating” (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 2009, 66). It was also in 1968 that Garrett Hardin published his much cited article on the “tragedy of the commons” arguing that common resources can always be subject to degradation and extinction in the face of the rational pursuit of self-interest. For Hardin, the increasing pressure on shared resources, and increasing pollution, are inevitable results of the fact that “there is no technical solution to the population problem” (Hardin 1968). The problem may be analysed from the perspective of the so-called prisoner’s dilemma (also see the entry on the free rider problem ). Despite the pessimism of writers at the time, and the advocacy of setting limits to population growth, there was also an optimism that echoes Mill’s own view that a “stationary state” would not be one of misery and decline, but rather one in which humans could aspire to more equitable distribution of available and limited resources. This is clear not only among those who recognize limits to economic growth (Meadows et al. 1972) but also among those who champion the move to a steady state economy (Daly 1991) or at least want to see more account taken of ecology in economics (Norgaard 1994, Rees 2020).

The Brundtland report puts less emphasis on limits than do Mill, Malthus and later writers. It depicts sustainability as a challenge and opportunity for the world to become more socially, politically and environmentally fair. In pursuit of intergenerational justice , it suggests that there should be new human rights added to the standard list, for example, that “All human beings have the fundamental right to an environment adequate for their health and well being” (WCED 1987, Annexe 1, paragraph 1). The report also argues that “The enjoyment of any right requires respect for the similar rights of others, and recognition of reciprocal and even joint responsibilities. States have a responsibility towards their own citizens and other states” (ibid., chapter 12, paragraph 83). Since the report’s publication, many writers have supported and defended the view that global and economics [normative] and economic justice require that nations which had become wealthy through earlier industrialization and environmental exploitation should allow less developed nations similar or equivalent opportunities for development especially in term of access to environmental resources (Redclift 2005). As intended by the report the idea of sustainable development has become strongly integrated into the notion of environmental conservation. The report has also set the scene for a range of subsequent international conferences, declarations, and protocols many of them maintaining the emphasis on the prospects for the future of humanity, rather than considering sustainability in any wider sense.

Some non-anthropocentric environmental thinkers have found the language of economics used in the report unsatisfactory in its implications since it already appears to assume a largely instrumental view of nature. The use of notions such as “asset”, “capital” and also the word “resources” in connection with natural objects and systems has been identified by some writers as instrumentalizing natural things which are in essence wild and free. The objection is that such language promotes the tendency to think of natural things as mere resources for humans or as raw materials with which human labour could be mixed, not only to produce consumable goods, but also to generate human ownership (Plumwood 1993, Sagoff 2004). If natural objects and systems have intrinsic value independent of their possible use for humans, as many environmental philosophers have argued, then a policy approach to sustainability needs to consider the environment and natural things not only in instrumental and but also in intrinsic terms to do justice to the moral standing that many people believe such items possess. Despite its acknowledgment of there being “moral, ethical, cultural, aesthetic, and purely scientific reasons for conserving wild beings” (WCED 1987, Overview, paragraph 53), the strongly anthropocentric and instrumental language used throughout the Brundtland report in articulating the notion of sustainable development can be criticised for defining the notion too narrowly, leaving little room for addressing sustainability questions directly concerning the Earth’s environment and its non-human inhabitants: should, and if so, how should, human beings reorganise their ways of life and the social-political structures of their communities to allow sustainability and equity not only for all humans but also for the other species on the planet?

The concern for preserving nature and non-human species is addressed to some extent by making a distinction between weaker and stronger conceptions of sustainability (Beckerman 1995). Proponents of weak sustainability argue that it is acceptable to replace natural capital with human-made capital provided that the latter has equivalent functions. If, for example, plastic trees could produce oxygen, absorb carbon and support animal and insect communities, then they could replace the real thing, and a world with functionally equivalent artificial trees would seem just as good—from an economic perpective—as one with real or natural trees in it. For weak sustainability theorists, the aim of future development should be to maintain a consistently productive stock of capital on which to draw, while not insisting that some portion of that capital be natural. Strong sustainability theorists, by contrast, generally resist the substitution of human for natural capital, insisting that a critical stock of natural things and processes be preserved. By so doing, they argue, rivers, forests and biodiverse systems are maintained, hence providing maximum options—options in terms of experience, appreciation, values, and ways of life—for the future human inhabitants of the planet (Norton 2005). The Brundtland report can also be seen as advocating a form of strong sustainability in so far as it recommends that a “first priority is to establish the problem of disappearing species and threatened ecosystems on political agendas as a major resource issue” ( ibid ., chapter 6, paragraph 57). Furthermore, despite its instrumental and economic language, the report in fact endorses a wider moral perspective on the status of and our relation to nature and non-human species, evidenced by its statement that “the case for the conservation of nature should not rest only with development goals. It is part of our moral obligation to other living beings and future generations” (WCED 1987, chapter 2, paragraph 55). Implicit in the statement is not only a strong conception of sustainability but also a non-anthropocentric conception of the notion. Over time, strong sustainability came to be focused not only on the needs of human and other living things but also on their rights (Redclift 2004, 218). In a further development, the discourses on forms of sustainability have generally given way to a more ambiguous usage, in which the term “sustainability” functions to bring people into a debate rather than setting out a clear definition of the terms of the debate itself. As globalization leads to greater integration of world economies, the world after the Brundtland report has seen greater fragmentation among viewpoints, where critics of globalization have generally used the concept of sustainability in a plurality of different ways (Sneddon, Howarth and Norgaard 2006). Some have argued that “sustainability”, just like the word “nature” itself, has come to mean very different things, carrying different symbolic meanings for different groups, and reflecting very different interests (Redclift 2004, 220). For better or for worse, such ambiguity can on occasion allow different parties in negotiations to claim a measure of agreement. For example, commenting on the connections between agricultural systems, sustainability and climate change, one writer has argued that there is exciting scope for negotiation across different world views in working out the conditions for a future sustainable form of agriculture (Thompson 2017).

Meadows’ and Daly’s arguments about the need to recognize that planetary resources are limited have continued to resonate with thinkers, especially those working in ecological economics (Daly and Farley 2011). As one author puts it, “the overriding aim [of ecological economics] ... is to seek viable responses to the biggest dilemma of our times: reconciling our aspirations for the good life with the limitations and constraints of a finite planet” (Jackson 2017, 3). While economic growth is a central focus of neoclassical economic theory (see the entry on philosophy of economics ) a minority of thinkers have joined in supporting an agenda of “de-growth” (or “degrowth”) as an alternative to what is sometimes called “growthism” (for a popular overview see Hickel 2020). From small beginnings in the late 20th century, the idea of de-growth developed from “a political slogan with theoretical implications” to become a significant challenge to the idea of sustainable development considered as a kind of sustainable growth (Martinez-Alier et al . 2010). Advocates of de-growth advocate that the transition to sustainability will be aided by pursuing de-growth instead of economic growth (D’Alisa et al. 2015, Khamara and Kronenbeg 2020). At the same time some ecological economists argue for a rejection of the anthropocentrism they claim is central to neoclassical economics and support embracing a new ecological economics that explicitly incorporates an ecological ethic (Washington and Maloney 2020). Having drawn attention to the huge impact of the human ecological footprint, Rees has gone on to gloomily ponder the kind of economics needed to deal with a situation in which “we are currently ‘financing’ economic growth by liquidating the biophysical systems upon which humanity ultimately depends” (Rees 2020, 1). He concludes that “the mainstream fantasy…...this obsession with growth, cannot end well” ( ibid. , 6). Assuming that some forms of consumption are important to a satisfying human life, some writers have explored the idea that developing more modes of virtual consumption, while reducing physical forms of consumption, might be a significant contribution to sustainable lifestyles (Pike and DesRoches 2020).

The preservation of opportunities to live well, or at least to have a minimally acceptable level of well being, is at the heart of population ethics and many contemporary conceptions of sustainability. Many people believe such opportunities for the existing younger generations, and also for the yet to arrive future generations, to be under threat from continuing environmental destruction, including loss of fresh water resources, continued clearing of wild areas, decreasing biodiversity and a changing climate thus raising questions not only about sustainability but also about environmental justice (see Gonzalez, Atapattu, and Seck 2021). Of these, climate change has come to prominence as an area of intense policy and political debate, to which applied philosophers and ethicists were slow to contribute (Heath 2021). An early exploration of the topic by John Broome shows how the economics of climate change could not be divorced from considerations of intergenerational justice and ethics (Broome 1992), and this has set the scene for subsequent discussions and analyses (see the entry on climate justice ). More than a decade later, when Stephen Gardiner analyses the state of affairs surrounding climate change in an article entitled “A Perfect Moral Storm” (Gardiner 2006), his starting point is also that ethics plays a fundamental role in all discussions of climate policy. But he argues that even if difficult ethical and conceptual questions facing climate change (such as the so-called “ non-identity problem ” along with the notion of historic injustices ) could be answered, it would still be close to politically and socially impossible to formulate, let alone to enforce, policies and action plans to deal effectively with climate change. This is due to the multi-faceted nature of a problem that involves vast numbers of agents and players. At a global level, there is first of all the practical problem of motivating shared responsibilities (see the entry on moral motivation ) in part due to the dispersed nature of greenhouse gas emissions which makes the effects of increasing levels of atmospheric carbon and methane not always felt most strongly in the regions where they originate. Add to this the fact that there is an un-coordinated and also dispersed network of agents—both individual and corporate—responsible for greenhouse gas emissions, and that there are no effective institutions that can control and limit them. But this tangle of issues constitutes, Gardiner argues, only one strand in the skein of quandaries that confronts us. There is also the fact that by and large only the future (and perhaps the current younger) generations will carry the brunt of the impacts of climate change, explaining why so many people in the current generations seem not to have strong enough incentive to act. Finally, he argues it is evident that mainstream political, economic, and ethical models are not up to the task of reaching global consensus, and in many cases not even national consensus, on how best to design and implement fair climate policies. Some consequentialist theorists, however, have argued that a form of rule consequentialism can take account of the interests of future generations who may be inhabiting a "broken world" (Mulgan 2011, 2017). Mulgan argues that by imagining a broken world of limited resources and precarious human survival, it may be possible to devise an ideal moral ooutlook that differs from the ideal code of many rule consequentialists who usually presuppose that the future will be just like the present.

However, Gardiner takes a pessimistic view of the prospects for progress on climate issues. His view includes pessimism about technical solutions, such as geoengineering as the antidote to climate problems, echoing the concerns of others that large scale interventions in—and further domination of—nature may turn out to be an even worse climate catastrophe (Gardiner 2011, ch 11, Jamieson 1996 and see also the papers in Gardiner and McKinnon 2020). A key point in Gardiner’s analysis is that the problem of climate change involves a tangle of issues, the complexity of which conspires to encourage buck-passing, weakness of will, distraction and procrastination, “mak[ing] us extremely vulnerable to moral corruption” ( ibid ., 397; cf. Gardiner 2011; see also the concept of “wicked problem” in Brennan 2004). Because of the grave risk of serious harm to current and future generations of people and other living things, our failure to take timely mitigating actions on climate issues can be seen as a major moral failing, especially in the light of our current knowledge and understanding of the problem (IPCC 2021).

In a related reinterpretation of a classic study in psychology, Russell and Bolton re-examine Milgram’s classic “obedience studies” (see the entry on the concept of evil , section 4.5). In these experiments, Milgram explored the conditions under which ordinary people would be disposed to perform evil actions (such as administering electric shocks to strangers). Russell and Bolton argue that, when properly interpreted, Milgram’s studies show that political, administrative and bureaucratic structures can lead to a general and tacit agreement for those in an advantaged situation to harm the interests of those less powerful. In Russell and Bolton’s new interpretation of the Milgram experiments, those who are in the advantaged situation are those living comfortably in wealthy countries, while the powerless are distant strangers and members of future generations. Corporate structures and long organizational chains, Russell and Bolton argue, encourage inaction, denial and diffusion of responsibility that typifies both the common responses to climate change and also the behaviour of participants in Milgram’s experiments. They conjecture that Milgram’s work thus explains the phenomenon of what they call “responsibility ambiguity” that underlies hesitancy to take action on climate change (Russell and Bolton 2019, and see also Rees 2020). While they make no mention of the work of Hannah Arendt, their analysis recalls some of Arendt’s analysis of the banality of evil (see the entry on the concept of evil , section 2.3). There appears to be scope for more empirical research and interdisciplinary study on topics such as the diffusion of responsibility and denialism. A similar analysis might also apply to inaction in the face of declining biodiversity.

John Broome tries to show some of the ways that one form of climate denialism takes, when it uses ingenious but, Broome claims, flawed reasoning to depict individuals as making no significant contribution to climate change (Broome 2019, see also McKinnon 2014). A stronger form of denialism refuses to acknowledge the fact of anthropogenic climate change at all. A puzzle remains over why much ingenuity is expended on such denial in the face of the urgent problems that now confront the world (see the entry on science and pseudo-science ). In response, some argue that the persisting denialism over the reality of the environmental and climate crises may be a product of shame or guilt over the human treatment of natural things and systems (Aaltola 2021). These emotions may interfere with and block a much-needed and honest confrontation of a frightening situation—even if it is one humans have brought upon themselves. There is also a well-known psychological phenomenon of “knowing but not knowing” which can contribute, along with other factors, to denialism (Norgaard 2011, 404, and compare the classic studyof this in Cohen 2001, ch. 2). Many countries’ initial and ongoing response to the 2020s COVID-19 pandemic, for example, appears to show that denialism, typically accompanied by widespread misinformation and unfounded hypotheses about conspiracies, may be a very human way to react in the face of a global catastrophe. Using factor analysis studies, some psychologists have claimed to demonstrate that anti-scientific views have close association with beliefs in creationism and animism. Further, they conjecture that purposive or teleological thinking is the gateway to such associations (Wagner-Egger et al. 2018). Note that the role of teleological notions in biology remains contested and subject to further research. Other research claims to show that people simply reject scientific findings that make them uncomfortable and threaten their worldviews (see Lewandowsky and Oberauer 2016).

Writers have also tried to make sense of why so much misinformation about climate change and other catastrophes is so widespread. On the part of some theorists (see McIntyre 2018), the blame for the evils of a “post-truth” era has been laid at the feet of some postmodern thinkers who endorse social epistemology . But social constructionist writers have their own diagnosis of the social forces that have given rise to the “new climatic regime” (Latour 2017), which combines science denialism and what has be called “out-of-this-world”—fanciful and over-optimistic—thinking about the human prospects for escaping climate catastrophe. One suggested remedy for these cognitve failings is to encourage the recognition that natural systems respond to human action and are not merely the material resources for economic development. It has been proposed that awareness that humans and the natural systems that support them share a dwelling place might pave the way to a new kind of “terrestrial politics” (Lenton and Latour 2018, Latour 2018). The shape of such a politics is still under-theorized, and could take many forms (Mann and Wainwright 2018). Meanwhile, some animal ethicists blame “speciesist anthropocentrism” (see the entry on the moral status of animals ) for blinding humanity to the evils of its overpopulation and denialism (Almiron and Tafalla 2019). Whatever the future holds, many thinkers insist that solving the problem of climate change is an essential ingredient of sustainability and that the alternative to decisive action may result in the degrading not only of nature and natural systems, but also of human dignity itself (see Nanda (ed.) 2011, especially chapters by Heyd, Balafrej, Gutrich and Brennan and Lo, see also section 3.4 of the entry on human rights ). As humanity faces an uncertain future of declining biodiversity and increasing extreme weather events driven by escalating planetary heating—causing suffering and alienation for humans and non-humans alike—the moral challenges listed at the start of this entry seem more pressing than ever.

Supplementary Document: Pathologies of Environmental Crisis: Theories and Empirical Research

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How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.

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• Schwartz, P. and Randall, D., 2003. “ An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and its Implications for United States National Security , download from climate.org.

aesthetics: environmental | animals, moral status of | communitarianism | consequentialism | critical theory | ecology | ecology: biodiversity | ethics: virtue | feminist philosophy, interventions: ethics | globalization | justice: intergenerational | metaethics | panpsychism | respect | value: intrinsic vs. extrinsic

Acknowledgments

The authors are deeply grateful to the following people who gave generously of their time and advice to help shape the final structure of this entry: Clare Palmer, Mauro Grün, Lori Gruen, Gary Varner, William Throop, Patrick O’Donnell, Thomas Heyd, Dale Jamieson and Edward N. Zalta.

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Essays on Environmental Ethics

Explore the profound relationship between humanity and the natural world with our engaging collection of essays on environmental ethics. This thought-provoking anthology navigates through the philosophical underpinnings, challenges, and moral responsibilities we bear towards our environment.

Complexities of Environmental Ethics

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Environmental Ethics: A Call to Action

Amidst growing environmental crises, our essays underscore the urgent need for ethical considerations in our decisions and actions. Explore discussions on climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution, all through the lens of ethical responsibility and stewardship.

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Fostering a Global Ethical Dialogue

By bringing together diverse perspectives on environmental ethics, this collection aims to foster a global dialogue on how to live harmoniously with nature. It invites readers from all walks of life to reflect on their values, question prevailing norms, and contribute to a collective ethical response to environmental challenges.

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Topics in Environmental Ethics

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Environmental Ethics - Free Essay Examples and Topic Ideas

Environmental ethics refers to the moral principles and values that guide individuals and societies in their interactions with the natural world. It involves considering the impact of human actions on the environment and the implications for present and future generations. Environmental ethics is concerned with promoting a sustainable relationship between humans and the natural environment, while recognizing the intrinsic value of other species and ecosystems. This includes taking responsibility for environmental issues and promoting practices that are environmentally responsible and respectful.

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• Moral Responsibility and Environmental Ethics
• Environmental Ethics And Social Responsibility
• Environmental Ethics
• Ethics in Environmental Conservation and Research
• The Ethical Dimensions of Global Environmental Issues
• Environmental Issues in Encounters with the Archdruid
• Safeguarding of a Solid Setting and Environmental Adjusts
• The Place of Nonhumans in Environmental Issues
• Environmental Values Paper
• About The Helsinki Summer School Course Entitled “Environmental Ethics: From Philosophical Texts To Real Case Studies”
• Egocentrism as a Cause of Environmental Issues
• Environmental issueBeauty industries are engaged by producing
• Environmental and Organisational Analysis Techniques
• How do you define environmental science?
• The Social, Economical, and Environmental Impacts of Diamond Mining in Africa
• Delphi In Environmental Studies
• Environmental Analysis: Southwest Airlines
• The Environmental Impact of Food Waste
• How The Idea of Preservation of Nature Can Benefit from Environmental Ethics
• Eco-friendly Cleaning Practices
• The Impact of China’s Progress on The Environment
• Recycling in The Automotive Industry
• The Policy and Ethics of The Environmental Protection Agency (epa)

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376 Ethical Topics & Questions for Research Papers, Essays, Debates, & More

Are there white lies with good intentions? Should euthanasia be permitted by law?

Both of these questions are ethical dilemmas – situations with two or more conflicting moral choices. Ethical dilemmas involve conflicting values and moral obligations. To ease the understanding of such predicaments, you can approach ethics (or moral philosophy). This branch of philosophy suggests the concepts of good and bad and provides theories to determine moral behavior.

In this article, we will explore different ethical topics and theories applicable to them. You will also find practical tips on how to write an essay on the most complex ethical issue. Let’s start!

• 💥 TOP 12 Ethical Topics

📚 Normative Ethical Theories

• 🤔 How to Answer Ethical Dilemmas

📝 Ethical Research Paper Topics

🧑🏾‍⚕️ ethical topics in healthcare.

• 🌳 Environmental Ethical Issues

🖥️ Ethical Topics in Technology

⚡ ethical argument topics.

• 🏺 Philosophy Essay Topics
• 👩🏽‍🎓 Ethical Questions for Students

💬 Ethical Persuasive Speech Topics

🔦 ethical topics for presentation, ❓ ethical questions: faq, 🔗 references, 💥 top-12 ethical topics.

Here are some ethical topics that are popular for discussion in 2023:

• Privacy concerns in social media advertisement.
• Ethics of using artificial intelligence for marketing.
• Digital surveillance and personal data protection.
• Genetic engineering and ethical boundaries.
• Ethical issues in educational technology.
• Ethical challenges in healthcare data sharing.
• Environmental ethics and sustainable development.
• Ethical dilemmas of autonomous vehicles.
• Bioethics in medical research and experimentation.
• Ethical considerations in cybersecurity practices.
• Ethical concerns in the use of big data.
• Ethical implications of blockchain technology.

Normative ethical theories provide principles or guidelines for determining what is morally right or wrong. There are three broad (and competing) groups of ethical theories:

• Consequentialism believes that the consequences of an action determine its moral value.
• Deontology emphasizes adherence to moral rules and duties.
• Virtue ethics focuses on developing moral character and embodying virtuous traits.

🤔 How to Answer Ethical Dilemma Questions

Sometimes it seems that ethical dilemmas don’t have the right answers . But you can choose the best one for yourself if you establish a certain decision-making algorithm.

To answer ethical dilemma questions, follow these steps:

Below, you will see lists of ethical topics from different areas of human knowledge and activities. There are plenty of topics to write about, no matter what your focus of study is.

Ethical Topics in Business

• Corporate social responsibility in multinational companies.
• The role of business ethics in insurance companies .
• Ethical challenges in international supply chain management.
• Transparency and accountability in financial reporting.
• The role of business ethics in recruiting new employees using social media .
• Workplace diversity and inclusion ethics in the USA.
• Data privacy and security of employees in the workplace.
• Global warming and business ethics .
• Bribery and corruption in business transactions.
• Whistleblowing and ethical reporting mechanisms.
• Business ethics: Indian tea plantation workers .
• Ethical considerations in advertising and marketing practices.
• Fairtrade and ethical sourcing in global business.
• Business ethics of concealing facts in reports .
• Ethical leadership and decision-making in organizations.

Ethical Fashion Topics

• Sustainability and eco-friendly practices in fashion.
• Maintaining ethical standards in fashion .
• Ethical implications of fast fashion and overconsumption.
• Fair wages and labor rights in garment manufacturing.
• Supply chain as a crucial component of sustainability in the fashion industry .
• Animal cruelty-free and ethical sourcing of materials.
• Transparency in supply chains and traceability of products.
• Child labor in the fashion industry .
• Body image and ethical representation in fashion advertising.
• Recycling and upcycling in the fashion industry.
• Overseas sweatshops in the fashion industry .
• Cultural appropriation and respect for traditional designs.
• Ethical considerations in fashion collaborations and partnerships.
• Fashion Nova’s labor standards and transparency .
• Fashion industry’s impact on local communities and artisans.

Ethical Issues in Criminal Justice Topics

• Use of force and police brutality in the United States.
• The code of ethics in the Texas Department of Criminal Justice .
• Racial profiling and discriminatory practices in law enforcement.
• Ethical considerations in undercover operations and informant handling.
• Criminal justice: philosophies of corrections .
• Integrity and honesty in witness testimony and evidence presentation.
• Ethical challenges in the use of informants and confidential sources.
• Professional ethics in criminal justice: Singleton vs. Norris .
• Juvenile justice and ethical treatment of young offenders.
• Capital punishment and ethical implications of the death penalty.
• Criminal justice ethics: police corruption & drug sales .
• Ethical issues in plea bargaining and prosecutorial discretion.
• Ethical responsibilities of defense attorneys and client representation.
• The criminal justice service violations and ethical issues .
• Rehabilitation and ethical approaches to offender reintegration.

Media Ethics Paper Topics

• Accuracy and fact-checking in media reporting.
• Communication and social media ethics in the United Arab Emirates .
• Journalism ethics in the era of misinformation.
• Privacy concerns and ethical boundaries in media coverage.
• Media ethics: censorship of online material and behavior .
• Ethical considerations in photojournalism and image manipulation.
• Sensationalism and ethical dilemmas in news reporting.
• Media ethics: principle of privacy .
• Conflict of interest and transparency in media ownership.
• Diversity and representation in media storytelling and content.
• Mass media ethics in news coverage .
• Ethical challenges in social media and online journalism.
• Intellectual property and plagiarism in media production.
• Media censorship in the US .
• The role of media in promoting ethical discourse.

Ethics in healthcare ensures that medical professionals prioritize patient well-being, maintain confidentiality, and make decisions rooted in moral principles. Choose one of the topics below for a paper on ethics in medicine:

• Informed consent and patient autonomy in healthcare decisions.
• Healthcare ethics: physician-assisted death .
• Ethical considerations in end-of-life care and medical assistance.
• Allocation of scarce resources and equitable healthcare distribution.
• Abortion: an ethical dilemma .
• Confidentiality and privacy of patient health information.
• Ethical challenges in clinical research and human experimentation.
• Medical ethics: implications of a confidentiality breach .
• Ethics of physician-assisted suicide in healthcare.
• Organ transplantation and ethical considerations in donor selection.
• Obamacare and healthcare reform: ethical challenges .
• Ethical dilemmas in reproductive medicine and assisted reproduction .
• Cultural competence and ethical practices in healthcare delivery.
• Medical ethics: pet euthanasia .
• Ethical considerations in the use of emerging technologies in healthcare.

Ethical Topics in Nursing

• Ethical considerations of artificial intelligence in nursing care.
• Nursing ethics in patient advocacy .
• Understanding and managing confidentiality breaches in nursing.
• Ethical implications of assisted suicide for nursing practice.
• Hospice care and nursing ethics provisions .
• The moral dilemma of resource allocation in nursing.
• Addressing the tension between cultural sensitivity and medical guidelines.
• Euthanizing handicapped people: ethical and moral concerns .
• Discussing the impact of health inequities on nursing ethics.
• Ethical challenges in implementing telehealth in nursing.
• Circumcision: ethical dilemma and a nurse’s role in it .
• The moral landscape of mandatory vaccination for nurses.
• The nursing profession’s role in addressing medical errors.
• Ethic-of-care and ethic-of-justice in nursing leadership .
• Exploring the nurse’s role in patient advocacy.

Biomedical Ethics Topics

• Impact of gene editing on the future of healthcare.
• Cryonics and its ethical side .
• Ethical issues surrounding prenatal genetic testing.
• The role of bioethics in emerging infectious diseases.
• Embryo harvesting: ethical implications .
• Ethical challenges in stem cell research .
• Ethical considerations in human organ and tissue transplantation.
• Bioethics: the use of marijuana for medical purposes .
• Privacy and consent in the age of digital health data.
• Addressing animal rights in the context of biomedical research.
• Neuroimaging methods and arising ethical issues .
• The ethics of personalized medicine and genetic discrimination.
• Bioethics of advancements in neurotechnology and brain-computer interfaces.
• Cloning research ethics: ethical dispute and issues .
• The ethics of extending human lifespan through biotechnology.
• Surgery complications and bioethical decision-making .

🌳 Environmental Ethical Issues Topics

Environmental ethics guide individuals and organizations to act responsibly towards the planet. Such actions promote sustainable practices and biodiversity conservation and mitigate the adverse impacts of human activities on ecosystems. Here is a list of ethical environmental topics for research:

• Ethical responsibility for climate change for future generations.
• Sea dumping: legal and ethical issues .
• The role of environmental justice in urban planning.
• Ethical considerations in the use and disposal of plastics.
• The issue of global climate change from an ethical perspective .
• Implications of luxury fashion on the environment and ethics.
• The ethical responsibility of corporations in pollution.
• Land use and environmental ethics .
• The intersection of environmental ethics and indigenous rights.
• The ethical debate surrounding geoengineering as a climate solution.
• Environmental ethics: genetically modified organisms .
• The moral duty towards the preservation of biodiversity.
• Ethical considerations in the transition to renewable energy sources.
• Environmental ethics: intrinsic value of objects .
• The role of capitalism in environmental degradation.
• Commercial fishing: environmental ethics case study .

Animal Ethics Topics

• Ethical considerations in the treatment of companion animals.
• Nestlé animal testing and business ethics .
• The role of ethics in wildlife conservation efforts.
• The ethics of animal testing in scientific research.
• Ethical issues in animal research .
• The environmental and ethical impact of factory farming.
• The moral status of animals in ecological ethics.
• Is animal testing ethical ?
• Ethical approaches to invasive species management.
• Addressing the ethical implications of zoos and animal captivity.
• Ethics of using animals in medical research .
• The ethical debate around hunting as a conservation strategy.
• Ethics of the human-wildlife conflict resolution.
• Scientific experiments on animals from ethical perspectives .
• The moral side of animal cloning and bioengineering.

Food Ethics Topics

• Ethical concerns of genetically modified foods’ impact on the environment.
• Underweight products and deontological ethics .
• Food waste and its ethical concerns.
• The ethical debate on organic versus conventional farming.
• Ethical eating in daily food practices .
• The ethical and ecological effects of the meat industry.
• Balancing the demand for seafood with sustainable practices.
• Food safety issues in modern agriculture .
• The ethics of the global food supply chain in developing countries.
• Evaluation of the environmental ethics of palm oil production.
• Food ads ban for childhood obesity prevention .
• Food sovereignty and its significance in ecological ethics.
• The ethical implications of mono-cropping and biodiversity loss.
• Do marketers condition us to buy more junk food ?
• Ethical dilemmas in the use of pesticides in agriculture.

In the technology sphere , ethics can influence the development and use of innovations. Ethical approach ensures privacy protection and promotes inclusive technology solutions. Below, you will find several topic lists regarding ethics in technology:

Computer Science Ethics Topics

• The ethical concerns of artificial intelligence development.
• Electronic surveillance as an unethical practice .
• Outdoor privacy and surveillance in the digital age.
• The ethics of data collection and use by tech companies.
• Computer attacks and critical privacy threats .
• Implications of autonomous vehicles on societal ethics and safety.
• Ethical considerations in the development and use of deepfakes.
• Obscenity and computer ethics .
• Cybersecurity and ethical considerations in protecting user data.
• The ethics of algorithmic bias in machine learning.
• Computer ethics and privacy .
• Ethical challenges in the application of facial recognition technology.
• The responsibility of tech companies in spreading disinformation.
• Computer ethics and data protection .
• The ethics behind AI’s influence on job displacement and unemployment.

Aviation Ethics Topics

• Ethical challenges of automation in aviation safety.
• Aviation security and Al-Qaeda in Yemen .
• The balance between profitability and safety in commercial aviation.
• Ethical responsibilities of air traffic controllers.
• Safety risks in the modern aviation industry .
• Ethical considerations in the age of crewless aerial vehicles.
• Ethics of environmental sustainability in the aviation industry.
• Criminalization of aviation accidents .
• Ethical challenges in aviation maintenance practices.
• The moral dilemma of overbooking flights in the airline industry.
• Aviation security is over-reliant on technology .
• Ethical issues in the crisis management in aviation.
• The role of whistleblowers in promoting aviation safety.
• Sustainability in global aviation companies .
• Ethical implications of advanced surveillance technologies in aviation security.

Engineering Ethics Research Paper Topics

• Navigating the ethics of autonomous vehicles in society.
• Engineering professionalism and ethics .
• The role of ethics in sustainable engineering practices.
• Ethical considerations in the age of artificial intelligence engineering.
• Chernobyl disaster and engineering ethics .
• Conflicts between innovation and safety in civil engineering projects.
• The responsibility of engineers in managing climate change.
• Engineering ethics: patent rights and legal issues .
• Ethical challenges in the disclosure of engineering failures.
• The implications of biotechnology in bioengineering ethics.
• Machinery accident from an ethical standpoint .
• The role of ethics in software engineering and data privacy.
• Ethical considerations in the use of drones for engineering.
• Ethical manufacturing and technology trends .
• The ethical dilemmas in nuclear engineering.
• Engineering competence and the code of ethics .
• The ethics of using performance-enhancing drugs in sports.
• Circumcision: medical, ethical, and human rights issues .
• Should artificial intelligence be allowed to make life-or-death decisions?
• Do celebrities have a moral responsibility to be role models?
• Nightingale Pledge: medical ethics perspectives .
• The ethical debate on privacy versus security in the digital age.
• Are autonomous vehicles a boon or a bane for society?
• Hurricane Katrina: government ethical dilemmas .
• Should schools be allowed to use surveillance cameras on students?
• Is it ethical to use animals for scientific experimentation?
• Debate on circumcision: is it unethical and unlawful ?
• Is the use of gene editing in babies ethically acceptable?
• Is it ethically right to deny healthcare based on lifestyle choices?
• Samsung and child labor: business ethics case .
• The ethics of commercialization of organ transplants.
• Are social platforms ethically responsible for the spread of fake news?
• Obesity in Afro-Americans: ethics of intervention .
• Should governments be allowed to censor the internet for national security?
• Is it ethically right to use facial recognition technology in public?
• Fetal abnormality and the ethical dilemma of abortion .
• Is it ethical to prioritize economic growth over environmental sustainability?
• The ethical implications of giving minorities benefits in college admissions.
• Discrimination as an unethical business situation .
• Should companies have the right to track their employees’ online activities?
• The ethical debate on the death penalty as a justice form.
• Ethical dilemmas in business: KFC Company’s case .
• Is it ethically acceptable to use AI for predictive policing ?
• Should parents have the right to choose their child’s genetic traits?
• The relationship between economic rationality and ethical behaviour .
• Is it ethically right to implement social credit systems in society?

🏺 Philosophy Essay Topics: Ethics

• The role of cultural relativism in moral philosophy.
• Aristotle’s views on ethics .
• Ethics of the philosophy of existentialism.
• Kantian ethics in contemporary society.
• Kant’s deontological ethical theory .
• The use of virtue ethics in modern moral dilemmas.
• The influence of Stoicism on contemporary ethical thinking.
• Cicero’s views on citizenship and ethics .
• The ethical debate on utilitarianism versus deontology .
• The philosophical implications of moral objectivism versus moral subjectivism.
• Kant’s and Mill’s ethical philosophies .
• Ethical implications of free will in the era of AI.
• The philosophy of ethical egoism in capitalist societies.
• Aristotle’s ethical theory about euthanasia .
• The relevance of Nietzsche’s master-slave morality in modern ethics.
• The role of empathy in moral philosophy and ethics.
• Moral philosophical views: from Plato to Nussbaum .
• Ethical questions raised by determinism and indeterminism.
• The influence of Eastern philosophies on contemporary ethics.
• Aristotle and virtue ethics .
• The role of ethics in postmodern philosophy.
• The ethics of responsibility in existentialist thought.
• Theories of ethics: consequentialism and ethical relativism .
• Moral obligations towards future generations in environmental ethics.
• Individual ethics versus collective ethics.
• Philosophical views of ethics and morality .
• Aristotle’s concept of eudaimonia in modern society.
• The ethical questions raised by the philosophy of solipsism.
• Nonconsequential theory of ethics: case analysis .
• The ethics of hedonism in contemporary societies.

👩🏽‍🎓 List of Ethical Questions for Students

We have ensured that you can find the perfect ethical topic depending on the type of assignment you received. You can find debate, discussion, speech, and presentation topics here.

Ethical Debate Topics

• What are the ethical implications of capital punishment?
• Fetus with deformities: what is its moral status ?
• Should there be a moral limit to scientific discoveries?
• Is it ethical to use animals in circus performances?
• How do ethical theories view gay marriage ?
• Is the commercialization of human organs ethical?
• Is it ethical to use DNA from extinct species?
• Should parents be responsible for children’s crimes ?
• Should physicians be allowed to assist in patient suicide?
• Is it ethical to clone humans for medical purposes?
• Should parents spank their children ?
• Is the use of child labor ethical?
• Should religious beliefs influence public health policy?
• Why should you be moral when it is not in your best interest to do so ?
• Should gene editing in unborn children be allowed?
• Is it ethical to implement robotic soldiers in warfare?
• Should the United States abolish the death penalty ?
• Is euthanasia in terminally ill patients ethical?
• Should society implement universal basic income?
• Should the sale of human organs be legalized ?
• Is it ethical to design babies with specific traits?
• Is the censorship of artistic expression ethical?
• Should animals be used in medical research ?

Ethical Discussion Topics

• The ethical implications of social media on personal privacy.
• Should sex and violence be restricted on television ?
• How should we address ethical issues in global outsourcing?
• The ethical implications of data breaches and digital privacy.
• Should same-sex couples be allowed to adopt children ?
• The ethics of sustainable consumption of electronic devices.
• The ethics of wealth disparity in capitalist societies.
• Should we not abolish capital punishment ?
• The role of ethics in sustainable development and climate change.
• Ethical considerations of health disparities in society.
• Should smoking be illegal ?
• Ethical considerations of pandemic response and vaccine distribution.
• The role of ethics in animal rights and testing.
• Should parents avoid vaccinating their children ?
• Ethical considerations in the rise of the gig economy.
• The ethical implications of facial recognition technology in public.
• The right-to-die bill: why should all states pass it ?
• Ethical dilemmas in genetic testing and personalized medicine.
• The role of ethics in global migration and refugee crisis.
• Should cigarette manufacturers be prohibited ?
• The ethics of using AI in predictive policing.
• The ethical considerations of child labor in global supply chains.
• Should Kant be criticized for his absolutism ?
• Why should animal testing for cosmetics be globally banned?
• Corporate fraud as an ethical and leadership dilemma .
• The need for ethical considerations in AI development.
• Why the right to privacy should be prioritized in the digital age?
• Stem cell research ethics, pros and cons, and benefits .
• The importance of ethical farming practices for a sustainable future.
• Why must corporations take responsibility for their carbon emissions?
• Ethics of Obamacare and Trumpcare .
• The necessity of ethical treatment of workers in global supply chains.
• The importance of ethical considerations in medical research.
• Should Americans adopt a vegan lifestyle ?
• Why should technology companies be held accountable for data breaches?
• The need for ethical standards in reporting and journalism.
• Should we withhold life support ?
• Why should businesses prioritize corporate social responsibility?
• The importance of ethical considerations in education system reforms.
• Should children be tried as adults for murder ?
• Why should organ donation be encouraged as an ethical duty?
• The necessity of transparency in governmental decision-making.
• Ethical dilemma: should gene editing be performed on human embryos ?
• Why should we consider the ethical implications of autonomous weapons?
• The importance of sustainable consumption in the fight against climate change.
• Animal testing for cosmetic or medical purposes should not be allowed .
• Why should we prioritize ethics in the fashion industry?
• The necessity for implementing ethical norms in genetic engineering.
• Should human cloning be allowed ?
• Why should we consider ethical implications of wealth disparity ?
• The importance of ethically addressing refugee and migration crises.
• How much should we do for our fellow men ?
• The necessity of ethical governance in the use of facial recognition.
• Ethical concerns in using virtual reality for psychological treatment.
• Patient’s violence and the use of doctor force – medical ethics .
• The role of ethical dilemmas in shaping public policy.
• The ethical issues and carbon footprint of global supply chains.
• British Petroleum: corruption involving ethics .
• The ethical implications of data breaches in technology companies.
• The ethical landscape of genetic engineering.
• Domino’s Pizza: ethical dilemma case .
• Ethical considerations in the use of personal data for political microtargeting.
• Evaluating the ethical considerations in predictive policing.
• The code of ethics of the American Nurses Association .
• The role of ethics in responsible journalism and fake news.
• The ethics of personalized pricing based on consumer data analysis.
• Apple Corporation: ethical and social responsibility .
• Ethical implications of intensive livestock farming on animal welfare.
• Visualizing the environmental impact of single-use plastics in marine ecosystems.
• Business ethics and dilemmas in the film Michael Clayton .
• Ethical considerations in access to healthcare for marginalized populations.
• Ethical dimensions of cultural appropriation.
• International legal and ethical issues in business .
• The role of ethics in organ donation and transplantation.
• The ethical implications of economic disparity in capitalist societies.
• Chevron Company: ethical analysis .
• Ethical considerations in journalism and media ethics.
• The role of ethics in sustainable development and consumption.
• College sport: ethical issues .
• Visualizing the environmental impact of fast fashion through data.
• Ethical dilemmas in pharmaceutical industry marketing strategies.
• Ethical dilemmas in Shakespeare’s Hamlet .
• The ethical challenges in the education reform policies.

What Are Ethical Questions?

Ethical questions are inquiries that explore moral issues, challenging us to consider right and wrong, good and bad. They often deal with dilemmas where a decision about the appropriate behavior or action must be made. Ethical questions are relevant in many fields, such as business, healthcare, politics, science, and education.

What Are the Seven Ethical Principles?

The seven ethical principles are common guidelines in ethical decision-making across various fields:

• Autonomy – respect for individuals’ right to decide for themselves.
• Beneficence – obligation to promote well-being and good.
• Non-maleficence – duty to cause no harm.
• Justice – ensuring fairness and equitable distribution of resources.
• Fidelity – maintaining loyalty and keeping promises.
• Veracity – commitment to truthfulness and honesty.
• Confidentiality – respecting the privacy of others.

What Are Some Ethical Topics?

Ethical topics cover a broad spectrum of issues across multiple domains. In healthcare, topics like euthanasia, patient confidentiality, and genetic engineering are common. In business, we discuss corporate social responsibility, whistleblowing, and fair trade. Environmental ethics covers animal rights, sustainability, and climate change. In technology, topics like data privacy, AI ethics, and cybersecurity are popular.

• Ethics Awareness: UC San Diego  
• Solving Ethical Dilemmas; Ethics in Law Enforcement  
• A Framework for Ethical Decision Making – Markkula Center for Applied Ethics  
• 5 Ethical Issues in Technology to Watch for in 2023 | CompTIA    
• The Very Best 127 Philosophical Questions 2023  
• Identifying Ethical Issues; Exploring Business  
• How to Write About an Ethical Dilemma – Synonym  
• The RIGHT Decision Method: An approach for solving ethical dilemmas | Institute on Community Integration Publications  
• A Brief Guide to Writing the Philosophy Paper | Harvard College Writing Center  

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Environmental Ethics Essay Examples

The fundamentals of ethics and morals in aviation.

In aviation people tend to obey the principle of ethics and morals. Ethics is more in some situation they tend to have more self-interest. The person mindset is either good or bad. There morals determine how they were raised and depict what is good and...

Three Arguments that Electric Vehicles Are Better for the Environment

Global warming and natural resource depletion are now being known as two of the greatest environmental concerns The reduction of greenhouse gases emissions such as CO2 and the development of new energy are therefore essential. Thus, electric vehicles are invented to solve these problems. However,...

Presenting an Idea of How to Make the World a Better Place

I strongly believe that the topic that I am writing about in “How to make the world a better place?” essay is the one you should mostly focus on. The topic I am writing about is the environment, the environment is the main source of...

Ecological Consciousness: Building a Sustainable Future

The aims and practices of traditional environmental education have evolved in the Australian curriculum in response to the growing concern of the global environmental predicaments of climate change, global dimming, species diversity loss and the impacts for future generations. The Cross-curriculum priority of Sustainability is...

Understanding Environmental Science: Principles and Applications

This is what is environmental science essay in which this topic will be considered. Environmental science includes more of social sciences for understanding human relationships,policies and their perception towards the environment.It is also defines as the study of effects of natural and and unnatural processes,and...

To Be a Thomasian Global Citizen

Each one of us may have a different perception of what it means to be a Thomasian Global Citizen. For me, it is being aware of our surroundings and taking an active part to be make our world a better place to live in for...

Analysing Environmental Justice and Victimization Perspectives

Environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, colour, nationality, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. An understanding of this concept is paramount to understanding environmental crime and...

Humans Responsibility for Mass Extinction

The documentary “Racing Extinction” is proof that every species in the world is crying for help but we humans just don’t care. There may be some people who care but I personally some of us don’t want to face the truth because some truth or...

The Variety of Methods to Reduce the Level of Pollution in Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is an enormous ivory-white mausoleum built of marble, that sits on the banks of the Yaruma river in Agra, India. It was constructed over 20 years in the 17th century by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan to house the remains of his favorite...

Sony's Environmental Policy: Minimization of Pollution & Clean Technology

Sony is a Japanese multinational corporation by headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. The management approach of Sony is to get closer to people and the purpose is to fill the world with emotion through the core corporate responsibility to contribute and developing a sustainable society. According...

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