Journal of Experimental Medicine
Journal of Molecular Biology
*APA: American Psychological Association Publication Manual
*MLA: Modern Language Association Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
During the summer, PhD students engage in research and directed reading programs, and take courses in the university’s other schools and departments.
During this time of individual study and one-on-one contact with faculty, you’ll have the opportunity to accelerate your growth as a research scholar. You’ll be required to submit a research paper at the end of either the first or the second summer. Some fields require papers following both summers.
You’ll have access to faculty guidance and supervision during the summer period, and you’ll present your paper in a seminar format and/or before field faculty.
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Michael spent more than a decade leading Northwestern University’s Prosthetics-Orthotics Center, and in his work, he helped the university develop a formal master’s degree in the field and co-edited two textbooks. Always interested in working with his hands, Michael became a national figure in prosthetics and orthotics, which essentially are braces, inserts or other items that are aimed at influencing and improving the neuromuscular and skeletal systems.
“There was about 20 years there when the name John Michael was probably the most recognizable in the profession of orthotics and prosthetics,” said J. Martin Carlson, the former director of Habilitation Technologies at Gillette Children’s Hospital in St. Paul, Minnesota, and a longtime friend. “He traveled all over, and was in high demand for public speaking on technical issues and products and things like that.”
Michael, 74, died July 25 at Hennepin County Medical Center in Minneapolis of a subdural hematoma that he suffered after hitting his head while on blood thinners, said his daughter, Kathryn.
A longtime Edgewater resident, he had been in Minnesota visiting his son at the time.
Born in Indianapolis, Michael spent his earliest years in that city before moving with his family to Ogden Dunes, Indiana. He graduated from Portage High School and then earned a bachelor’s degree in psychology in 1971 from Michigan State University.
After college, Michael was a psychiatric caseworker before deciding to earn a certificate in prosthetics and orthotics from Northwestern University in 1976, his daughter said. His first job was with Scheck & Siress, a prosthetics firm in Oak Park.
Michael then joined the staff of Northwestern University, where he was the assistant director of prosthetics education from 1978 until 1981. After that, he returned to Scheck & Siress for a year, and while there, he picked up a master’s degree in education from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He then took a job at North Shore Orthopedics in Highland Park.
“He liked working with his hands and machines, and he loved helping people, so developing prosthetics and orthotics was a good fit for him,” Kathryn Michael said.
In 1985, Michael left North Shore Orthopedics to take a job at Duke University in North Carolina, where he was director of the prosthetics and orthotics department. He left Duke in 1992 and moved to Minnesota to work at Ottobock, which makes orthotics and prosthetic devices for patients with amputations, injuries or neurological diseases.
In the late 1990s, Michael decided to strike out on his own, running his consulting firm, CPO Services, while still based in Minnesota. He and his family then returned to northwest Indiana to care for elderly parents while he still ran his own firm.
Before long, Michael began working at Northwestern again, and in 2009, he was named director of the university’s prosthetics and orthotics center. As part of his work there, he helped Northwestern transition its educational offerings from the certificate program, in which he had earned his certificate, to a full-fledged master’s degree program.
“Dad had a real dedication to his profession, to helping it grow and mature,” Kathryn Michael said. “Northwestern was so life-changing for him as a young man and a professional, so I think it really meant a lot to him to see that program and to be on the team that actually moved it to a master’s program.”
Michael’s son, David, said that “to connect education and research in one shared goal was something he really was proud of.”
Mindy Thorpe, an assistant professor and director of online education at Northwestern’s Prosthetics-Orthotics Center, said Michael’s “knowledge and impact touched every corner of the profession.”
“John led by example, never shying away from the hands-on, challenging tasks that others might avoid,” she said. “His commitment to his work was unwavering, giving 100% in everything he did. He was generous with his time and knowledge, always ready to guide and support me in becoming a better educator myself.”
With John Bowker, Michael co-edited a widely used textbook, “Atlas of Limb Prosthetics.” The book made an appearance in the 1993 film “The Fugitive,” which features actor Harrison Ford playing a wrongly accused surgeon, Dr. Richard Kimble. At one point in the film, Ford is shown dozing on a bed holding that textbook.
Later in his career, Michael also co-edited another textbook with Donald Shurr, “Prosthetics and Orthotics.”
In 2019, Michael retired as the director of the Prosthetics-Orthotics Center. He stayed on for another year after that to assist in the leadership transition.
Outside of work, Michael enjoyed gardening and working on an Avanti car, his family said.
In addition to his daughter and son, Michael is survived by his wife of 54 years, Linda; two grandchildren; a sister, Sue; and a brother, Don.
A service is being planned for fall in Chicago.
Goldsborough is a freelance reporter.
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Published on November 27, 2020 by Lauren Thomas . Revised on May 10, 2024.
The two most common types of graduate degrees are master’s and doctoral degrees:
A master’s is also the necessary first step to a PhD. In the US, the master’s is built into PhD programs, while in most other countries, a separate master’s degree is required before applying for PhDs.
Master’s are far more common than PhDs. In the US, 24 million people have master’s or professional degrees, whereas only 4.5 million have doctorates.
Master’s vs phd at a glance, which is right for you, length of time required, career prospects, costs and salaries, application process, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about master's and phd degrees.
The table below shows the key differences between the two.
Master’s | PhD | |
---|---|---|
Career prospects | Usually intended for a career outside of academia. | Prepares for a research career, ideally as a university professor. |
Length of time | 1–2 years | 5–7 in the US (master’s degree included); 3–5 outside the US (after a separate master’s degree) |
Structure | Mostly coursework, often with a semester-long or capstone project at the end. | 2 years of coursework (in the US), followed by 3–5 years of preparing a dissertation, which should make a significant original contribution to current knowledge. |
Cost | Varies by country, university and program; usually higher upfront cost with limited financial aid available. | Tuition fees are usually waived and a living stipend provided in exchange for being a teaching or research assistant. |
Graduate salaries | Wage premium (compared to earnings with a high school education) is 23% on average. | Wage premium is 26% on average. |
A PhD is right for you if:
A master’s degree is the better choice if any of the following apply:
The length of time required to complete a PhD or master’s degree varies. Unsurprisingly, PhDs take much longer, usually between 3–7 years. Master’s degrees are usually only 1–2 years.
Master’s degrees are usually 2 years, although 1-year master’s degrees also exist, mainly in the UK.
Most of the degree consists of classes and coursework, although many master’s programs include an intensive, semester-long master’s thesis or capstone project in which students bring together all they’ve learned to produce an original piece of work.
In the US, a PhD usually takes between 5 and 7 years to complete. The first 2 years are spent on coursework. Students, even those who choose to leave without finishing the program, usually receive a master’s degree at this point.
The next 3–5 years are spent preparing a dissertation —a lengthy piece of writing based on independent research, which aims to make a significant original contribution to one’s field.
Master’s degrees tend to prepare you for a career outside of academia, while PhDs are designed to lead to a career in research.
There are two types of master’s degrees: terminal and research-intensive. The career prospects are different for each.
Terminal master’s degrees are intended to prepare students for careers outside of academia. Some degrees, known as professional degrees, specifically prepare students for particular professions; these include the Master of Public Policy (MPP), Master of Business Administration (MBA), Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT), Master of Fine Arts (MFA), and Master of Public Health (MPH) degrees.
Other master’s degrees, usually Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Sciences (MS or MSc) degrees, do not necessarily lead to a specific career, but are intended to be a final degree. Examples include an MS in Communications or MS in Data Analytics.
In research-intensive master’s programs, students take coursework intended to prepare them for writing an original piece of research known as the master’s thesis . Such programs are usually intended to prepare for further study in a doctoral program.
As research degrees, PhDs are usually intended to lead to an academic career. A PhD can be thought of like an apprenticeship, where students learn from professional researchers (academics) how to produce their own research.
Most students aspire to become a university professor upon the completion of their degree. However, careers in academia are highly competitive, and the skills learned in a doctoral program often lend themselves well to other types of careers.
Some graduates who find they prefer teaching to producing research go on to be teachers at liberal arts colleges or even secondary schools. Others work in research-intensive careers in the government, private sector, or at think tanks.
Below are a few examples of specific fields and non-academic careers that are common destinations of graduates of those fields.
Many government jobs, including economists at a country’s central bank, are research-intensive and require a PhD. Think tanks also hire economists to carry out independent research.
In the private sector, economic consulting and technology firms frequently hire PhDs to solve real-world problems that require complex mathematical modeling.
Graduate students from the humanities are sometimes hired by museums, who can make use of their research and writing skills to curate exhibits and run public outreach.
Humanities PhDs are often well-suited to research and grant-writing roles at nonprofits. Since so much of research is funded by grants, PhD students often gain a lot of experience applying for them, which is a useful skill in the nonprofit sector.
There are a wide range of non-academic research jobs for lab scientists with doctorates in subjects like chemistry, biology, ecology and physics.
Many PhD graduates are hired by pharmaceutical companies that need to perform research to create and test their products. Government agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), also hire lab scientists to work on research projects.
Job prospects after graduation vary widely based on the field. In fields like management, computer science, statistics, and economics, there’s little underemployment—even graduates from less well-known programs can easily find jobs that pay well and use the skills they’ve gained from the PhD.
However, in other fields, particularly in the humanities, many PhD graduates have difficulty in the job market. Unfortunately, there are far more PhD graduates than assistant professor roles, so many instead take on part-time and low-paid roles as adjunct instructors. Even non-academic careers can sometimes be difficult for PhDs to move into, as they may be seen as “overqualified” or as lacking in relevant professional experience.
Because career options post-PhD vary so much, you should take the time to figure out what the career prospects are in your field. Doctoral programs often have detailed “placement” records online in which they list the career outcomes of their graduates immediately upon leaving the program. If you can’t find these records, contact the program and ask for them—placement information should play an important role in your choice of PhD program.
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Although PhDs take far longer to complete, students often receive a living stipend in exchange for being a teaching or research assistant. Master’s degrees are shorter but less likely to be funded.
Both master’s degrees and PhDs lead to increased salaries upon graduation. While PhDs usually earn a bit more than those with a master’s degree, in some fields, the wages are identical, meaning that no financial benefit is gained from going on to a PhD.
The upfront cost of a master’s degree is usually higher than a doctoral degree due to the lower amount of financial aid available. However, increased salaries also arrive faster than with a doctoral degree, because people graduate much earlier from a master’s program.
Some master’s students do receive stipends for their degrees, usually as compensation for being a teaching or research assistant. In addition, many people complete master’s degrees part time while working full-time, which allows them to fund their living costs as well as tuition.
The cost varies significantly by school and program. Public schools are usually cheaper than private ones. Some master’s degrees, such as MBAs, are notoriously expensive, but also result in much higher wages afterwards that make up for the high cost.
The master’s wage premium , or the extra amount that someone with a master’s degree makes than someone with just a high school diploma, is 23% on average. Many universities provide detailed statistics on the career and salary outcomes of their students. If they do not have this online, you should feel free to contact an administrator of the program and ask.
PhDs, particularly outside the humanities, are usually (though not always) funded, meaning that tuition fees are fully waived and students receive a small living stipend. During the last 3–5 years of a PhD, after finishing their coursework (and sometimes before), students are usually expected to work as graduate instructors or research assistants in exchange for the stipend.
Sometimes students can apply for a fellowship (such as the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Program in the United States) that relieves them of any obligations to be a teaching or research assistant. Doctoral programs in the US tend to be better funded than in the rest of the world.
Sometimes, PhD degrees can be completed part-time, but this is rare. Students are usually expected to devote at least 40 hours a week to their research and work as teaching or research assistants.
The main cost of doctoral programs comes in the form of opportunity cost—all the years that students could be working a regular, full-time job, which usually pays much better than a graduate school stipend.
The average wage premium for PhDs is 26%, which is not much higher than the master’s degree premium.
In the US, the application process is similar for master’s and PhD programs. Both will generally ask for:
Applications for both types of programs also often require a standardized test. PhDs usually require the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), which tries to measure verbal reasoning, quantitative, critical thinking , and analytical writing skills. Many master’s programs require this test as well.
Master’s degrees programs will often ask you to respond to specific essay prompts that may ask you to reflect upon not just your academic background, but also your personal character and future career ambitions.
Northwestern University’s Kellogg Business School requires Master’s of Business Administration (MBA) applicants write two essays, one about a recent time they demonstrated leadership and the second about their personal values.
Who you should ask for your letters of recommendation varies by program. If you are applying to a research-intensive master’s program, then you should choose former professors or research supervisors. For other programs, particularly business school, current work supervisors may be a better choice.
Some professional master’s programs require a specific test. For example, to apply to law school, you must take the Law School Admissions Test, or LSAT. For business school, you must take either the GRE or the Graduate Management Admissions Test (GMAT).
When applying for a PhD, your resume should focus more on your research background—you should especially emphasize any publications you’ve authored or presentations that you’ve given.
Similarly, your statement of purpose should discuss research that you’ve participated in, whether as an assistant or the lead author. You should detail what exactly you did in projects you’ve contributed to, whether that’s conducting a literature review, coding regressions, or writing an entire article.
Your letters of recommendations should be from former professors or supervisors who can speak to your abilities and potential as a researcher. A good rule of thumb is to avoid asking for recommendations from anyone who does not themselves have a PhD.
If you want to know more about college essays , academic writing , and AI tools , make sure to check out some of our other language articles with explanations, examples, and quizzes.
College essays
Academic writing
A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.
All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.
A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.
A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.
This depends on the country. In the United States, you can generally go directly to a PhD with only a bachelor’s degree, as a master’s program is included as part of the doctoral program.
Elsewhere, you generally need to graduate from a research-intensive master’s degree before continuing to the PhD.
This varies by country. In the United States, PhDs usually take between 5–7 years: 2 years of coursework followed by 3–5 years of independent research work to produce a dissertation.
In the rest of the world, students normally have a master’s degree before beginning the PhD, so they proceed directly to the research stage and complete a PhD in 3–5 years.
A master’s degree usually has a higher upfront cost, but it also allows you to start earning a higher salary more quickly. The exact cost depends on the country and the school: private universities usually cost more than public ones, and European degrees usually cost less than North American ones. There are limited possibilities for financial aid.
PhDs often waive tuition fees and offer a living stipend in exchange for a teaching or research assistantship. However, they take many years to complete, during which time you earn very little.
In the US, the graduate school application process is similar whether you’re applying for a master’s or a PhD . Both require letters of recommendation , a statement of purpose or personal statement , a resume or CV , and transcripts. Programs in the US and Canada usually also require a certain type of standardized test—often the GRE.
Outside the US, PhD programs usually also require applicants to write a research proposal , because students are expected to begin dissertation research in the first year of their PhD.
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Revised on April 16, 2024. A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the final step of a master's program or a capstone to a bachelor's degree. Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Other than a dissertation, it is one of the longest pieces of writing students typically complete.
It can be helpful to think of your Masters dissertation as a series of closely interlinked essays, rather than one overwhelming paper. The size of this section will depend on the overall word count for your dissertation. However, to give you a rough idea for a 15,000-word dissertation, the discussion part will generally be about 12,000 words long.
Craft a convincing dissertation or thesis research proposal. Write a clear, compelling introduction chapter. Undertake a thorough review of the existing research and write up a literature review. Undertake your own research. Present and interpret your findings. Draw a conclusion and discuss the implications.
This article collects a list of undergraduate, master's, and PhD theses and dissertations that have won prizes for their high-quality research. Note As you read the examples below, bear in mind that all universities have their own guidelines for writing theses and dissertations. The requirements for length, format, and structure often vary by ...
Definition of Dissertation and Thesis. The dissertation or thesis is a scholarly treatise that substantiates a specific point of view as a result of original research that is conducted by students during their graduate study. At Cornell, the thesis is a requirement for the receipt of the M.A. and M.S. degrees and some professional master's ...
A master's thesis is a written document highlighting knowledge gathered throughout the graduate degree, a unique perspective into the domain of study, an understanding of scientific and research methodology, and one's ability to analyze and interpret research outcomes. ... A thesis statement reflects what your paper represents and can help ...
A dissertation is a long-form piece of academic writing based on original research conducted by you. It is usually submitted as the final step in order to finish a PhD program. Your dissertation is probably the longest piece of writing you've ever completed. It requires solid research, writing, and analysis skills, and it can be intimidating ...
The central research question to show the main point of your paper The research design - how you collected evidence to support your arguments ... a master's degree in international relations from Troy University; and a doctorate in business administration from Walden University. Dr. Kritz is an official reviewer for the Journal of Leadership ...
Writing a masters dissertation or thesis is a sizable task. It takes a considerable amount of research, studying and writing. Usually, students need to write around 10,000 to 15,000 words. It is completely normal to find the idea of writing a masters thesis or dissertation slightly daunting, even for students who have written one before at ...
The purpose of a master's thesis is to help you develop your own independent abilities, ensuring that you can drive your own career forward without constantly looking to others to provide direction. Leaders get master's degrees. That's why many business professionals in leadership roles have graduate degree initials after their last names.
minimum of ten days for all members of the thesis committee to review the thesis. Step 1: Prepare the content of your presentation. The content of your presentation is the mirror of your thesis ...
This PhD thesis examines the dynamics of supply chain relationships across three levels: the interactions between firms and consumers, suppliers and buyers, and firms and governments. The research aims to provide insights into the complexities of supply chain dynamics and their implications for various stakeholders. Download Example.
A master's thesis is an academic research paper that requires a greater degree of research than an undergraduate thesis or term paper. It is marked by a higher standard of writing, and students are expected to demonstrate competence, literacy, and mastery of a subject.
Graduate School Writing Samples Bernhard Nickel · [email protected] July 10, 2022 1 The Goal of the Writing Sample A writing sample for graduate school primarily serves an evidentialfunction: its purpose is to give evidence of your qualifications to enter graduate school at the program you're applying to. Of course the central
A thesis or research paper based on joint work with other researchers is allowed, provided that a unique and separate document is presented by each degree candidate. The candidate must include a concise account of his or her contribution to the whole work. Authorship of a master's thesis or research paper by more than one degree candidate is ...
The master's research paper is worth 2 units of credit towards the MA or MES degree. The student will normally prepare a master's research paper over three terms, in two stages. the research paper proposal, and; the completed research paper.
Mr. John Russell [email protected], 618-453-4529 Student Services Building 325. KEYWORD: Be Consistent. Write your paper following the Graduate School Guidelines and the graduate program's designated Style Manual. Apply for graduation by the 4th week of the term you plan to graduate for Fall / Spring and by the 2nd week of the Summer term.
Example 1: Passive construction. The passive voice is a common choice for outlines and overviews because the context makes it clear who is carrying out the action (e.g., you are conducting the research ). However, overuse of the passive voice can make your text vague and imprecise. Example: Passive construction.
As stated above, a thesis is the final project required in the completion of many master's degrees. The thesis is a research paper, but it only involves using research from others and crafting your own analytical points. On the other hand, the dissertation is a more in-depth scholarly research paper completed mostly by doctoral students.
You'll be required to submit a research paper at the end of either the first or the second summer. Some fields require papers following both summers. You'll have access to faculty guidance and supervision during the summer period, and you'll present your paper in a seminar format and/or before field faculty. Attend an Admission Event.
Start your paper by crafting a clear and concise thesis statement. Utilize Free Writing. Employ a free writing technique to generate ideas and overcome writer's block. Follow the Outline or Map. Structure your paper by adhering to the outlined plan or concept map. Write as if Communicating with a Friend.
The title page (or cover page) of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper should contain all the key information about your document. It usually includes: Dissertation or thesis title. Your name. The type of document (e.g., dissertation, research paper) The department and institution. The degree program (e.g., Master of Arts)
John W. Michael was a leader in prosthetics and orthotics, and he spent several decades working to combine education and research as the field matured. Michael spent more than a decade leading ...
The two most common types of graduate degrees are master's and doctoral degrees: A master's is a 1-2 year degree that can prepare you for a multitude of careers. A PhD, or doctoral degree, takes 3-7 years to complete (depending on the country) and prepares you for a career in academic research. A master's is also the necessary first ...