music history essay thesis

Music History Paper Topics

Table of contents

• 1 Music Theory Topics
• 2 Music Education Research Topics
• 3 Great Research Paper Topics on Classical Music
• 4 Interesting Topics about 20th Century Music History
• 5 Research Paper Topics on History of Jazz and African American Music
• 6 Classical Music Topics

Musical history is important not only because it shows the development of this art, but it also deals with the historical and cultural context of an era. Music is one of the most significant cultural phenomena of each generation, and it has imprinting of social values of the society it was created in.

Writing research proves the student’s writing skills and his ability to analyze and perform information, his original perspective with supporting arguments. This is a list of good and relevant 2023 music history paper topics that will inspire you and help to choose the particular vector to deliver your thoughts.

Music Theory Topics

Many of the research paper topics are based on theory and as such, have a huge role in all of this. You may need to worry about classical music, genres and so much more. These research paper topics will help you get the job done in less time and easier than ever before. All of these research paper topics are common and appealing, and they will make your research paper writing better than ever.

• All about harmony
• Understanding rhymes
• Presenting melodies to beginners
• What is composition?
• Basics and details about music theory
• What is a key signature?
• Explain the texture of the music
• Scale explained to a professional
• What is an interval?
• Explain counterpoint
• What is an extended chord?
• What is musical notation?
• A proper ear training method
• All the chord symbols explained
• What is the range?

Need help with research paper writing? Get your paper written by a professional writer Get Help Reviews.io 4.9/5

Music Education Research Topics

A research paper of this kind is probably going to be very interesting and appealing. It is based on proper and detailed music research and even musicians. Of course, these research paper topics are never easy if you fail to find a lot of sources. But you can try to find an interesting topic and start with your work today. We have covered 15 of the best ones you will want to consider for your next research paper on classical music or any other.

• Why is music education so important?
• Most successful methodologies when it comes to teaching tunes
• Differences in teaching music in 21st and 20th century
• Your experience with the lessons
• Why students should attend music education classes?
• Can you become successful with this form of education?
• What are the biggest problems of modern music education?
• How you can make music education better?
• Which classical music topics you are fascinated with?
• Can music help you study harder and better?
• Do the perks younger generations get from music?
• Benefits older people get from music
• How music education will change in the future?
• Best places to have music education in the world
• How you would teach someone about music?

Great Research Paper Topics on Classical Music

Classical music is the basis of any artistic development; it influences popular art as well and is a crucial element of the history of art. It shows the trends and innovations made previously and their relativity to the modern state of affairs.

• The Innovation of J. S. Bach in comparison to other composers of the era;
• Early music history and the development of musical instruments;
• Baroque music, main techniques, cultural meaning;
• Classical composers and film industry;
• Medieval Europe’s music and the influence of the Catholic Church;
• Strings instruments used in classic Greek songwriting;
• Classical German composers of the 18th century and their impact on further musical development;
• Mozart vs Beethoven: comparing main techniques, style and influence;
• The Deep analysis of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony;
• The role of wind instruments in an orchestra;
• How technology influenced classical melody;
• Discovering the effect classical music has on a person’s perception;
• Romantic period of the 18-19th centuries and its influence;
• The phenomena of Mozart, his style and innovation.
• The origins of classical composing.

Also, there are some more  history research topics for college students  that you can use for your college assignment.

Interesting Topics about 20th Century Music History

The 20th century brought a great variety of different musical styles, new forms of expression, and phenomena, such as popular artists, etc. There were so many innovations that one might need help with a research paper . Here are 15 music history topics that deal with the main events of the 20th century.

• Melody Development Between two World Wars
• The origins and main characteristics of country music
• How Drugs Contributed to the Development of psychedelic rock?
• Nirvana phenomenon and grunge rock
• How does radio contribute to pop songs?
• Development of the music industry: Pros and Cons of Capitalistic Perception of an Art
• Origins, influence and cultural value of Rock’N’Roll
• Comparing rational and irrational branches of the 20th century
• The connection between pop and folk melodies
• How has technology affected the new sounds of the 20th century?
• A postmodern approach to traditional songwriting
• Digital sound and the use of electronic instruments
• Freedom of the performer and the new means of the expression
• Rock, its styles and aspect
• The key features of popular songs and the message it brings

Research Paper Topics on History of Jazz and African American Music

Jazz and African American music are one of the most exciting phenomena of the 20th and the 21st century. It has a great influence to this day and has rooted in different genres.

It is crucial not only for the USA culture but for the whole music industry. Jazz is a complex and unique style that has a strong and particular influence, as well as conceptual history. It is only beneficial to write or order a research paper on this matter. Here are 15 paper topics on music history relating to it:

• The role of improvisation in Jazz performance
• L. Armstrong, his innovation and influence on the development of Jazz
• Jazz, its History and Legacy to African American culture
• How has Jazz affected American culture?
• African American musical techniques, origins, lyrics, and style
• The concept of liberation and blues
• Jazz, Blues, and the concept of identity
• Miles Davis and his influence on Jazz
• Jazz techniques in modern popular songwriting
• The phenomena of Kansas City Jazz
• Slavery, memory, and tribal roots in African American melody
• The historical context of Jazz, and its resemblance to society’s problems
• Cultural appropriation of African American tradition
• Comparative analysis of Jazz and Hip-Hop
• Jazz innovative structures and the concept of freedom

Classical Music Topics

A research paper on classical music is something you will have to write at some point. See, classical music is extremely popular and has been with us for a long time. Music research is nice and loaded with details. Hence, it is easy. All of this means that your research papers are mandatory and going to be impressive. You still need to worry about conducting proper custom research for all your research papers and even if you have to invest days into music research and find rare facts.

• All about the music of Johann Sebastian Bach
• Why this music is so important?
• Main differences compared to African music?
• All variations of the classical music
• Music and life of Beethoven
• Most impressive artists of the century
• How classical music is used in films today?
• Effect classical music has on the human brain
• Is it true that classical music boosts your IQ?
• How and why Niccolo Paganini was a different artist?
• Is classical music popular today?
• Who are the people who listen to classical music?
• Compare two composers
• Mozart: The best of the best or not?
• Symphonic music: Complete evolution

Are you struggling to find good music history paper topics? It can be difficult to pick a topic that you find interesting and that you can research thoroughly. If you’re looking for more help with your essay, consider using an essay writer service . With their expertise and resources, they will help you craft a well-researched and engaging paper.

If you’re writing a music history paper and need help finding a topic, look no further. Here are some useful topics that you can use for your paper. From the Baroque Period to the Classical period, there are many interesting topics to explore. Alternatively, you can also buy history papers from reliable sources like PapersOwl, that cover interesting topics and are written by experienced writers.

When looking for a good topic, you can always find inspiration in the artist you like to listen to, the origins of one particular style or historical era that fascinates you. If you need help with an assignment for your college, we are providing assistance for any type of task and subject. We guarantee satisfaction with completely unique paper and timely delivery.

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115 Popular Music Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Music has always been a powerful form of expression, and popular music in particular has the ability to shape culture and society. If you are tasked with writing an essay on popular music, you may find yourself overwhelmed by the sheer number of topics to choose from. To help you narrow down your options and get started on your essay, here are 115 popular music essay topic ideas and examples.

• The impact of social media on the music industry
• The evolution of music streaming services
• The role of women in the music industry
• The influence of technology on music production
• The rise of K-pop in the global music market
• The impact of the internet on music distribution
• The role of music in political movements
• The portrayal of race and ethnicity in popular music
• The influence of music on fashion trends
• The role of music in advertising
• The impact of music festivals on local economies
• The relationship between music and mental health
• The evolution of music videos
• The influence of popular music on language and slang
• The role of social justice in popular music
• The impact of music streaming on album sales
• The rise of TikTok as a platform for discovering new music
• The influence of popular music on youth culture
• The role of music in shaping identity
• The impact of music piracy on the music industry
• The portrayal of gender in popular music
• The role of music in shaping societal norms
• The influence of popular music on political campaigns
• The evolution of music genres
• The impact of music awards shows on the industry
• The relationship between music and nostalgia
• The role of music in protest movements
• The influence of popular music on film and television
• The portrayal of love and relationships in popular music
• The impact of social media influencers on music trends
• The evolution of music marketing strategies
• The role of music in cultural appropriation
• The influence of popular music on fashion trends
• The impact of music festivals on tourism
• The relationship between music and dance
• The role of music in shaping generational identities
• The influence of popular music on consumer behavior
• The portrayal of masculinity in popular music
• The impact of music education on academic achievement
• The evolution of music production techniques
• The role of music in branding and advertising
• The influence of popular music on language and communication
• The impact of music streaming on artist royalties
• The relationship between music and emotion
• The role of music in social movements
• The influence of popular music on body image
• The portrayal of sexuality in popular music
• The impact of music festivals on environmental sustainability
• The evolution of music journalism
• The role of music in cultural diplomacy
• The impact of music videos on artist visibility
• The relationship between music and memory
• The role of music in shaping cultural identity
• The influence of popular music on social media trends
• The portrayal of mental health in popular music
• The impact of music festivals on local communities
• The evolution of music distribution platforms
• The role of music in shaping political ideologies
• The influence of popular music on social justice movements
• The impact of music streaming on artist discovery
• The relationship between music and technology
• The role of music in healing and therapy
• The influence of popular music on consumer trends
• The portrayal of race and ethnicity in music videos
• The impact of music festivals on artist careers
• The evolution of music criticism
• The role of music in cultural assimilation
• The influence of popular music on social norms
• The impact of music education on creativity
• The relationship between music and spirituality
• The role of music in storytelling
• The influence of popular music on political discourse
• The portrayal of gender identity in popular music
• The role of music in cultural preservation
• The portrayal of love and relationships in music videos
• The impact of music streaming on artist exposure
• The role of music in shaping social movements
• The influence of popular music on body positivity
• The evolution of music journalism in the digital age
• The role of music in shaping cultural identities
• The portrayal of mental health in music lyrics

These popular music essay topic ideas and examples should help you get started on your essay and explore the diverse and fascinating world of popular music. Whether you are interested in the impact of technology on the music industry, the portrayal of social issues in music, or the role of music in shaping cultural identities, there is a topic for everyone in the world of popular music. Happy writing!

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Music in the renaissance.

ex "Kurtz" Violin

Andrea Amati

Double Virginal

Hans Ruckers the Elder

Cornetto in A

possibly Georg Voll

Sixtus Rauchwolff

Claviorganum

Lorenz Hauslaib

Tenor Recorder

Rectangular Octave Virginal

Rebecca Arkenberg Department of Education, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

Music was an essential part of civic, religious, and courtly life in the Renaissance. The rich interchange of ideas in Europe, as well as political, economic, and religious events in the period 1400–1600 led to major changes in styles of composing, methods of disseminating music, new musical genres, and the development of musical instruments. The most important music of the early Renaissance was composed for use by the church—polyphonic (made up of several simultaneous melodies) masses and motets in Latin for important churches and court chapels. By the end of the sixteenth century, however, patronage had broadened to include the Catholic Church, Protestant churches and courts, wealthy amateurs, and music printing—all were sources of income for composers.

The early fifteenth century was dominated initially by English and then Northern European composers. The Burgundian court was especially influential, and it attracted composers and musicians from all over Europe. The most important of these was Guillaume Du Fay (1397–1474), whose varied musical offerings included motets and masses for church and chapel services, many of whose large musical structures were based on existing Gregorian chant. His many small settings of French poetry display a sweet melodic lyricism unknown until his era. With his command of large-scale musical form, as well as his attention to secular text-setting, Du Fay set the stage for the next generations of Renaissance composers.

By about 1500, European art music was dominated by Franco-Flemish composers, the most prominent of whom was Josquin des Prez (ca. 1450–1521). Like many leading composers of his era, Josquin traveled widely throughout Europe, working for patrons in Aix-en-Provence, Paris, Milan, Rome, Ferrara, and Condé-sur-L’Escaut. The exchange of musical ideas among the Low Countries, France, and Italy led to what could be considered an international European style. On the one hand, polyphony or multivoiced music, with its horizontal contrapuntal style, continued to develop in complexity. At the same time, harmony based on a vertical arrangement of intervals, including thirds and sixths, was explored for its full textures and suitability for accompanying a vocal line. Josquin’s music epitomized these trends, with Northern-style intricate polyphony using canons, preexisting melodies, and other compositional structures smoothly amalgamated with the Italian bent for artfully setting words with melodies that highlight the poetry rather than masking it with complexity. Josquin, like Du Fay, composed primarily Latin masses and motets, but in a seemingly endless variety of styles. His secular output included settings of courtly French poetry, like Du Fay, but also arrangements of French popular songs, instrumental music, and Italian frottole.

With the beginning of the sixteenth century, European music saw a number of momentous changes. In 1501, a Venetian printer named Ottaviano Petrucci published the first significant collection of polyphonic music, the Harmonice Musices Odhecaton A . Petrucci’s success led eventually to music printing in France, Germany, England, and elsewhere. Prior to 1501, all music had to be copied by hand or learned by ear; music books were owned exclusively by religious establishments or extremely wealthy courts and households. After Petrucci, while these books were not inexpensive, it became possible for far greater numbers of people to own them and to learn to read music.

At about the same period, musical instrument technology led to the development of the viola da gamba , a fretted, bowed string instrument. Amateur European musicians of means eagerly took up the viol, as well as the lute , the recorder , the harpsichord (in various guises, including the spinet and virginal), the organ , and other instruments. The viola da gamba and recorder were played together in consorts or ensembles and often were produced in families or sets, with different sizes playing the different lines. Publications by Petrucci and others supplied these players for the first time with notated music (as opposed to the improvised music performed by professional instrumentalists). The sixteenth century saw the development of instrumental music such as the canzona, ricercare, fantasia, variations, and contrapuntal dance-inspired compositions, for both soloists and ensembles, as a truly distinct and independent genre with its own idioms separate from vocal forms and practical dance accompaniment.

The musical instruments depicted in the studiolo of Duke Federigo da Montefeltro of Urbino (ca. 1479–82; 39.153 ) represent both his personal interest in music and the role of music in the intellectual life of an educated Renaissance man. The musical instruments are placed alongside various scientific instruments, books, and weapons, and they include a portative organ, lutes, fiddle, and cornetti; a hunting horn; a pipe and tabor; a harp and jingle ring; a rebec; and a cittern .

From about 1520 through the end of the sixteenth century, composers throughout Europe employed the polyphonic language of Josquin’s generation in exploring musical expression through the French chanson, the Italian madrigal, the German tenorlieder, the Spanish villancico, and the English song, as well as in sacred music. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation directly affected the sacred polyphony of these countries. The Protestant revolutions (mainly in Northern Europe) varied in their attitudes toward sacred music, bringing such musical changes as the introduction of relatively simple German-language hymns (or chorales) sung by the congregation in Lutheran services. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525/26–1594), maestro di cappella at the Cappella Giulia at Saint Peter’s in Rome, is seen by many as the iconic High Renaissance composer of Counter-Reformation sacred music, which features clear lines, a variety of textures, and a musically expressive reverence for its sacred texts. The English (and Catholic) composer William Byrd (1540–1623) straddled both worlds, composing Latin-texted works for the Catholic Church, as well as English-texted service music for use at Elizabeth I ‘s Chapel Royal.

Sixteenth-century humanists studied ancient Greek treatises on music , which discussed the close relationship between music and poetry and how music could stir the listener’s emotions. Inspired by the classical world, Renaissance composers fit words and music together in an increasingly dramatic fashion, as seen in the development of the Italian madrigal and later the operatic works of Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643). The Renaissance adaptation of a musician singing and accompanying himself on a stringed instrument, a variation on the theme of Orpheus, appears in Renaissance artworks like Caravaggio’s Musicians ( 52.81 ) and Titian ‘s Venus and the Lute Player ( 36.29 ).

Arkenberg, Rebecca. “Music in the Renaissance.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renm/hd_renm.htm (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Rebecca Arkenberg

• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Violins .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Keyboards .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Organs .” (October 2002)

Related Essays

• Painting in Italian Choir Books, 1300–1500
• Renaissance Keyboards
• Renaissance Organs
• Art and Love in the Italian Renaissance
• Burgundian Netherlands: Court Life and Patronage
• Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi) (1571–1610) and His Followers
• Courtship and Betrothal in the Italian Renaissance
• The Development of the Recorder
• Elizabethan England
• Flemish Harpsichords and Virginals
• Food and Drink in European Painting, 1400–1800
• Gardens in the French Renaissance
• Joachim Tielke (1641–1719)
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• Northern Italian Renaissance Painting
• The Printed Image in the West: History and Techniques
• The Reformation
• Renaissance Violins
• Sixteenth-Century Painting in Venice and the Veneto
• The Spanish Guitar
• Titian (ca. 1485/90?–1576)
• Violin Makers: Nicolò Amati (1596–1684) and Antonio Stradivari (1644–1737)
• Woodcut Book Illustration in Renaissance Italy: Venice in the Sixteenth Century

List of Rulers

• List of Rulers of Europe
• Central Europe (including Germany), 1400–1600 A.D.
• Florence and Central Italy, 1400–1600 A.D.
• France, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Great Britain and Ireland, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Iberian Peninsula, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Low Countries, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Rome and Southern Italy, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Venice and Northern Italy, 1400–1600 A.D.
• 15th Century A.D.
• European Decorative Arts
• High Renaissance
• Musical Instrument
• Northern Renaissance
• Percussion Instrument
• Plucked String Instrument
• Renaissance Art
• String Instrument
• Wind Instrument

Artist or Maker

• Amati, Andrea
• Amati, Nicolò
• Beham, Hans Sebald
• Cuntz, Steffan
• Hauslaib, Lorenz
• Rauchwolff, Sixtus
• Ruckers, Hans, the Elder
• Vell, Georg

Online Features

• The Artist Project: “Cory Arcangel on the harpischord”
• MetMedia: “Double” from the Sarabande of Partita no. 1 in B minor by Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and Gigue from Partita No. 2 in D minor by Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

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Collection The Moldenhauer Archives - The Rosaleen Moldenhauer Memorial

Music history from primary sources, the art of musical notation.

In its primary sources, music merges with the representational arts. Oral tradition has played a fundamental role in all ages, but in its formal sense, history--and the history of music--begins with the visual record.

Musical notation, having emerged on a wide scale in all civilizations, produced in itself a highly individual record of artistic endeavor. The medieval monks who compiled the missals and other liturgical books for the service of worship rose from their function as scribes to artists in their own right; among the greatest documents of Baroque art are the holographs by Bach; and an entirely novel phase in artistic musical score design was initiated in the twentieth century. The primary sources of music reproduced in this volume rely on various aspects of the graphic arts, but foremost among them stands the representation of the musical sound itself, the art of musical notation.

Among the manifold forms the written image of music has taken are letters or syllables, to represent individual tones, and symbols to represent groups of them. But a more advanced approach is expressed in notation guided not only by the wish to fix the immediate impression of a given musical sound but by the attempt to render the act of musical performance in its continuity. The notational signs which were to prove of the most lasting influence were the highly expressive neumes; it was from them that the generally surviving style of musical script arose. The term was derived from the Greek word neuma --a nod or motion, and in this particular context the manual gesture or gestures to establish different pitch levels--and it suggests the melodic flow as indicated by the leader of an ensemble. Widely used in Eastern and Western music practice, the neumes were invariably connected with vocal performance whose notation was also greatly aided by the joining of musical symbols with verbal text.

The decisive step in the evolution of a readily perceptible image for the musical sound was taken by the Benedictine monk Guido of Arezzo (circa 1000), the preceptor of the cathedral choir school at that northern Italian city and a theorist of unusual pedagogical gift. Guido's achievement was in placing the neumes on lines, for clearer orientation drawn in different colors and representing the interval of a third. With this invention he created the basis of a system that has remained alive in modern practice. So immediately successful was his method that Pope John XIX, "after brief instruction, and to his own surprise, was able to sight-read a melody not previously known to him, without any error," and in justified pride, Guido added "musica sine linea est sicut puteus sine fune" ("music without lines is like a well without a rope"). 1

Guido's refinements in the definition of pitch were followed by corresponding advances in graphically defining the musical sound's duration. The use of neumes gradually gave way to that of square-shaped notes and combinations of notes in so-called ligatures. While obviously emanating from the forms of neumes, these new symbols served their purpose with greater exactness of detail.

contribution to the history of music. Influences from the south and east met with those from the north and west by which traditions of monophonic music--unaccompanied melody--merged with developments in probing the harmony of simultaneously sounding voices. They led to the work of the masters at Notre Dame in Paris and various other regions of northern France, the first figures in music history who stand out as individual composers of indigenous styles. In the early polyphonic settings of chant, long and short note values were distinguished by applying the rhythmic modes, inferred from the verse meters of antiquity, to groups of notes. But fourteenth-century theorists declared a categoric difference between old and new styles (ars antiqua and ars nova), the latter reflected by means of notation that departed from the modal system and adopted a system of strict measuring, the so-called mensural notation. The differentiation of note values grew, adding to the horizontally placed square shapes more precisely placed diamond shapes; and the color of notes changed from black to white (i.e., a mere black outline of the note shape which, once again, ensured greater precision of notation).

The magnificent appearance of missals from the waning Middle Ages and early Renaissance, with their lavish illuminations, may make it at times difficult to decide which is the greater artistic achievement: the manuscript itself, or the art it represents. We are dealing with a period that was not yet fully conscious of the distinction between artist and artisan known in later ages. But the time was approaching when the work of the scribe was supplanted by that originating in centers of printing whose interest and influence reached beyond the sphere of the individual artifact. The process of music printing obviously grew in stages. In early phases, merely the lines were given in print, the neumes being entered by hand, or folios were produced by "double printing"--the lines in red and, in a second imprint, the notes in black. The first printer of mensural music, the Venetian Ottaviano Petrucci, was for a long time considered the inventor of the art of printing music with movable type, yet his excellent work (begun about 1500) was preceded by that of various print shops in the north.

The sixteenth century became a "golden age" that produced the classical summaries of the art of vocal polyphony in sacred and secular music as well as in treatises on music theory. Among the latter, L'Istitutioni Harmoniche (1555, reprinted 1562 and 1573) by Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-1590), Master of the Chapel at St. Mark's in Venice, assumed a preeminent place. As the title suggests, the work was dedicated to the age-old ideals of symmetry and proportion, the "harmony of all parts in relation to the whole," as described by the writers of antiquity. In his thorough discussion of the correlation of tones and melodies, Zarlino--like the early authors on perspective--saw himself obliged to create a completely new terminology. His concern with measurement and the concepts of division and inversion lends his work an authority extending to the fine arts as much as to music, and the numerous ornamental illustrations accompanying his text go far beyond the traditional embellishment of enhanced initial letters. They render scientific design that represents a true counterpart to the decorative music printing of the era.

The work is divided into four parts which the author joins in two larger sections. The first pair deals with the conceptual and physical properties of the musical sound, and the second with the technique of composition. What Zarlino recognizes and, in fact, reconciles, is the time-honored distinction between musica speculativa and musica activa --theory and practice. In a rather robust way, Guido had referred to the two domains with the well-known verse:

Musicorum et cantorum magna est distantia

Isti dicunt, illi sciunt, quae componit musica

Between musicians and singers exists a wide gulf The latter perform, the former know, the substance of music

His dichotomy led Guido into a bit of polemic comment on "those who do what they not know" which has remained alive through the centuries, though amply misconstrued. While Zarlino links an introductory chapter on the division of music into speculative and practical branches to "the difference between musician and singer," he significantly redefines the ideas and terms involved, because he speaks of the musico as the artist able to judge not only the sound but also the "reason contained in this science," whereas the prattico is considered, in his text, on equal terms with a "composer, singer, or player." He states categorically that "practical music is the art of counterpoint," and that the domains of theory and practice are, as in other arts, complementary rather than opposed.

What is of special interest is that he refers to the practice of playing as well as singing, for the rise of instrumental music had posed a fresh challenge to polyphony and to its notation. Zarlino's music examples are still arranged according to the old choir book notation in which the separate voices appear side by side; and the audition requirements for early sixteenth-century organists, which have been preserved, call for the ability to play a motet from the given number of individual part books. Such an astounding grasp of polyphonic texture, however, gradually became a rare achievement. A historic exception was Mozart's encounter with the choral music of Bach, kept in the library of St. Thomas's church in Leipzig only in separate parts. The account of an eyewitness reads: "and then it was for the silent observer a joy to see how eagerly Mozart sat himself down, with the parts all around him--in both hands, on his knees, and on the chairs next to him--and, forgetting everything else, did not get up again until he had looked through everything." 2 The sixteenth-century organist, faced with the task of rendering all parts of a polyphonic composition on a single instrument, soon felt the need to tabulate them in a form in which their simultaneous sound could be readily recognized. The "tabulations" that resulted characterize the appearance of the early keyboard literature and herald the notation of the modern keyboard score.

Score arrangements were actually known as early as the ars antiqua , for the works of the Notre Dame school appear in parts written one under the other, though not necessarily in careful alignment. Older, too, was the device of intabulation itself, but it covered a wide range of notation applied to instrumental music of various kinds. In fact, the device of tablature goes back to the ancient world in the notation of music for instruments such as the flute or zither in systems that lived on in the lute tablatures of the Renaissance. Here, however, it was not a series of pitches that was tabulated, but rather the relative position of fingers or strings to be used in order to produce them, and the tradition has survived in examples of modern notation.

Conversely, the tablatures of polyphonic keyboard music retained a direct connection with the early scores rendering vocal music, and they appeared on a number of staves representing the different voices of the composition, or merely on two staves, showing how these voices were to be combined in the right and left hands of the player.

A certain exception was the tablature notation used by German organists, in which the tones were not identified by notes but by the letters designating them. Since this was done in Gothic script, German organ tablature presents a particularly difficult picture, and this picture becomes doubly bewildering through the use of a number of special symbols. Nevertheless, the notation is precise. Measures and individual parts are neatly grouped; the rhythm is marked by strokes, dots, and flags; and the register is indicated by horizontal lines as well as by a distinction between the use of capital and small letters (among which, according to German custom, b stands for b-flat and h for b-natural).

Above all, the manuscripts in German organ tablature impress again upon the modern reader the fact that the scribe approached his task as an art. Perhaps the most conspicuous feature on a page of German organ tablature is the occasional elongation of a letter by which, for instance, "f" is changed to "fis" (the German note name for f-sharp). What was an abbreviation of the suffix "is" became a flourish, a very characteristic expression of the art of musical notation. In its particular form of German organ tablature this art was ultimately glorified in isolated cases appearing in the autographs of Handel and Bach.

• Guido's text is given in vol. II of the series Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musica, published in 1784 by the Benedictine scholar Martin Gerbert. [ Return to text ]

The Rise of Music Drama

We speak of the intellectual life of the Renaissance as Humanism--the study of man--and the first writer to use the term Renaissance, the French historian Jules Michelet, referred to the reawakening or "rebirth" of ancient culture as both la découverte du monde and la découverte de l'homme --the discovery of the world and the discovery of man. It is indicative of the era that several documents in this collection, preserved from the waning sixteenth century, bear personal signatures. In documentary history the signature moves into focus, as the portrait moves into the focus of pictorial history. Western music had for centuries evolved primarily in the sacred service, but a new age of the art began to be oriented not by the relation of man to God so much as by his relation to man. Its prime expression was no longer the liturgy but human drama.

It is well known that a learned academy met in one of the Florentine palaces for discussions devoted to a revival of the dramatic art of antiquity and that these discussions led to the inception of music drama. The name Camerata, by which the group is remembered, signaled the fact that decisive developments in music had passed from the church to the camera, the princely chamber. Yet the scholars and artists of the Camerata were by no means the originators of dramatic music, nor did the influence of sacred music practice decline due to the evolution of dramatic music. The two great Venetians of the period, Gioseffo Zarlino and Giovanni Gabrieli, who in this collection are represented by autograph signatures, were church musicians; they both served at St. Mark's. But the work of Gabrieli, whose fame outshone that of all other musicians of his era, announces a new age, a new style of music that is totally dramatic.

Unlike Palestrina's music, written for the Papal Chapel and borne by ideas of retrospection, the music of Gabrieli was of a progressive, in fact, revolutionary nature. It favored the dramatic contrasts of the "concerted" style, in which several choirs vied with one another in the unfolding of resonant splendor, and in which a "choir" of instruments began to assume an independent role. It is especially interesting that we find Gabrieli's signature paired with that of Heinrich Julius, Duke of Brunswick, one of the most eminent musical patrons of the new era and himself well trained as a musician. The names of Antonio Goretti, Giovanni Battista Buonamente, and Luigi Battiferri, however, lead us to a generation of church musicians already fully versed in the secular dramatic style, the greatest of whom was Claudio Monteverdi.

Here we encounter one of those towering figures whose work shaped an epoch in music history. Born in 1567 at Cremona, the city of the famed violin makers, Monteverdi was trained in the old contrapuntal art by Marco Antonio Ingegneri, the eminent master of the Cathedral Chapel, but it was as a violinist that in young years he was appointed to the ducal court of Mantua. Soon he was also to earn the more highly regarded title of cantore, and in time he took over the direction of all instrumental and vocal music at the court. By the turn of the century he had become the leading exponent of what in the works of one of his contemporaries, the Florentine lutenist and singer Giulio Caccini, was designated as "nuove musiche" and "nuova maniera di scriverla" ("new music" and "the new manner of writing it"), but what was attacked by another contemporary, the Bolognese theorist Giovanni Maria Artusi, as "imperfettioni della moderna musica" ("imperfections of modern music"). Monteverdi answered the latter charge with a famous statement in which he boldly asserted that the alleged imperfections were in reality perfections; that what was involved was a novel style with its own legitimacy; and that it represented a "Second Practice," postulated by the requirements of dramatic music, to which the principles of the "First Practice"--those codified by Zarlino--no longer applied. Just as the fourteenth century had declared an ars nova in music, the rising eventeenth century thus established a new style period that, in fact, figures as the beginning of many to follow.

In 1607 Monteverdi received a court commission to write a "musical fable," characteristically based on the legend of Orpheus, the mythical singer whose art moved the forces of nature and conquered the supernatural spirits. Orfeo became Monteverdi's most celebrated work. In it he drew on the wealth of musical expression the Renaissance had produced, placing it in the service of drama. It is indicative of a new age that in Orfeo it is no longer the voice alone that serves dramatic means but the instrument as well--an example is the expressive use of the violin, Monteverdi's own instrument, in introducing the climactic song of Orpheus. Monteverdi's achievement went beyond a fulfillment of the aims of the Camerata. It was music itself that triumphed through his work in the rebirth of ancient drama.

Yet the "new music" of the theater was immediately blended with the music of the church. In 1613, a year after Gabrieli had died, Monteverdi was appointed Master of the Chapel at St. Mark's Cathedral. The "sacred concerto" now took its place next to mass and motet; and from it was to arise theProtestant church cantata, for the greatest of the German church composers of the time, Heinrich Schütz, who had studied with both Gabrieli and Monteverdi, brought the new forms to the north.

Giovanni Battista Buonamente, less well known as one of the Monteverdi followers, may have shared with Schütz the latter's role as initiator of dramatic music beyond the Alps. Like Monteverdi, active at the court of the Gonzagas in Mantua as a violinist, he wrote works in which the element of instrumental virtuosity begins to come to the fore. They are characteristic of the rapidity with which the dramatic style had entered all aspects of musical practice. It found expression in the sonata which now arose in distinction to the cantata as the piece that was "sounded" rather than sung, and it led eventually to the instrumental concerto in which one or several soloists are singled out from the orchestra. But on a broader scale it continued to serve the music for the stage. At the occasion of the wedding of Princess Eleanora Gonzaga to the Emperor Ferdinand II, Buonamente took up service at the Viennese court. His preserved letters to Prince Cesare Gonzaga give a vivid account of the Imperial court music, and his description of a Pastoral Comedia suggests that it was he who composed the instrumental music for the dances in the work.

The term Comedia did not carry the connotation of the later "comic" play--rather, in accordance with the Greek origin of the word, it designated a festive entertainment that was presented through song. In his letter written in Parma on February 28, 1628, Antonio Goretti, a distinguished patron of music and friend of Monteverdi's, mentions his ardent wish ("mi moro di voglia"--"I die with desire") to return from Parma to Ferrara in order to attend the forthcoming Comedia there. The letter was apparently addressed to the Marchesa Bentivoglio who represented one of the aristocratic families of Ferrara and with whom Monteverdi and Goretti were visiting at the time.

Ever since his early years in the employ at the court of Mantua, Monteverdi had been connected in various ways with the neighboring court of Ferrara. Musical life in Ferrara, which flourished at the court, in churches, and in theaters, had received a particular impetus from various academies, learned and philanthropic societies which often maintained their own musical establishments. To one of them, the Accademia degli Intrepidi, Monteverdi had dedicated his Fourth Book of Madrigals, the earliest of the works that had touched off the controversy with Artusi. The most famous of the academies was the Accademia della Morte (originally a monastic order to aid those condemned to death), and among its eminent music directors was Luigi Battiferri, who, as late as the time of Bach, was praised as a master of the contrapuntal art. 1

The Renaissance was an essentially Italian movement, though its roots stretched throughout Europe. In the north it was paralleled by the Reformation which was to lead the northern world into a war that lasted for an entire generation--the Thirty Years War. It profoundly affected all cultural life, and the work of such a composer as Schütz gives eloquent witness to the adversity of the age. In the highly interesting statements with which he prefaced the prints of his works, he referred to "the wretched times our dear homeland is still undergoing" and he gave suggestions to the performer as to how his compositions might be executed with more modest means than called for in the printed form.

Nevertheless, the early seventeenth century saw a significant turn to German texts in manuscripts and published editions of music. German had become an established literary language with Luther's Bible translation, and whereas in the documents of this collection we have dealt so far only with Latin and Italian, we now have before us an immense body of works in which texts in the northern languages predominate. The rise of music drama spread beyond the Alps, and it found its strongest expression in the Protestant liturgy.

The oldest piece of Protestant church music represented here introduces a little-known name, Johannes Wanning. One of the numerous musicians who had migrated from the Netherlands to Germany, this fertile and imaginative composer is a true representative of a well-developed art with which the new church had begun to assimilate the influences of music drama. Though Latin texts still prevail in his music, it suggests a genuinely northern style. He spent the major part of his life in Danzig, one of the Hanseatic seaports, whose new organ at St. Mary's Church had "caused a sensation in all of Europe." 2

The Reformation had divided the continent into a Catholic south and a Protestant north. A dividing line was never sharply drawn, nor did it remain without various enclaves north and south. But there is no question that this division initiated a certain shift of weight. Padre Giambattista Martini, teacher of the young Mozart, was to open his famous treatise on counterpoint with the statement that in the art of music, the sixteenth century had made Italy "the mistress of the other nations." This hegemony gradually declined in subsequent centuries, though not without leaving an Italian legacy to the world. The Italian language became international in musical terminology. It was within the lands where the German language was spoken, however, that a certain dividing line between Catholic and Protestant music became recognizable. The works of Christoph Demantius and Christoph Bernhard mark the generations of German Protestantism before and after Schütz, whereas the name of Wolfgang Ebner reminds us of a different school of composers whose works initiated the style that was to become of enduring influence at the Catholic imperial court of Vienna.

The style element that characterized the rise of dramatic music everywhere was the bassus generalis or basso continuo , the thoroughbass that accompanied the vocal melody with harmonic support of keyboard or other chordal instruments as well as various bass instruments. As its designation implies, it ran through the entire composition; being executed by the conductor himself at the keyboard, with the support of bass instruments, it provided a sure foundation for a musical fabric largely dominated by the dramatic expression of the vocal or instrumental solo. Its rule arose in phases, and it is typical of the church music of Demantius that its polyphonic texture, though tending toward a polarity of the outer voices, is maintained without continuo accompaniment. His orientation was conservative, though in his most significant work, a St. John Passion for six-part choir, he heralded the form in which Protestant church music was to culminate.

Christoph Bernhard, foremost student of Schütz, was born in Danzig, the city where Wanning had been active, but he was trained in Italy as well as in Germany. In his important theoretical writings he acted as the catalyst who interpreted the old art of polyphony to a new generation. Through Schütz's tutelage he was thoroughly schooled in the a cappella style, the "Palestrinian manner," but in his sacred concertos, which again adopted the model of Schütz, the modern continuo style was firmly established. His works were of direct influence upon Dietrich Buxtehude, the mentor of the young Bach, into whose era the life of Bernhard was to extend.

The work of Ebner, while itself overshadowed by that of his greater contemporary Johann Jakob Froberger, guides us to the Viennese keyboard art of the seventeenth century. The dance suite, one of the oldest forms of instrumental ensemble music, now appears as a form of courtly keyboard music, merging French, German, and English style elements with genuine Viennese influences. Ebner's keyboard music remained in high esteem, as is shown by the fact that his own name is joined in the copy of the composition here preserved to those of Alessandro Poglietti and Giuseppe Antonio Paganelli, noted Italian keyboard composers, both of whose careers developed on German soil. Ebner served, together with Froberger, as imperial court organist, though during the latter's extensive travels, he often carried out the duties of this assignment alone. Eventually he combined his court position with that of Master of the Chapel at St. Stephen's Cathedral, where in later years Johann Pachelbel served for some time as organist.

It was Pachelbel who carried the South German keyboard style into the Protestant orbit, and it is indicative of his influence that the sample of his work contained in this collection, and as yet unpublished, has come down to us in a copy by Heinrich Nikolaus Gerber, one of Bach's pupils. The generations overlap. Pachelbel had moved to Eisenach, Bach's birthplace, where for a brief period he held the position of court organist, and he became a friend of Bach's father who was in charge of the town music. Bach's eldest brother, Johann Christoph, to whose household Bach moved when he lost his parents at an early age, was Pachelbel's student, and it was through him that the young Bach was introduced to the organist's profession.

As we approach the era of Bach and Handel, we enter into two realms of music that during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries may seem to have grown far apart in purpose and style, though in reality they remained innately related to one another. It is more difficult to honor the height of an era than to trace its beginnings. Music history has borrowed the term Baroque , now commonly accepted, from the history of art, in order to describe characteristics that works of music from the seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth century have in common. Such epoch designations are always problematic because an afterglow of the past invariably merges with developments that foreshadow the future. As an alternate, more precise designation of what has come to be recognized as a particular era of music, historians formed the term basso continuo age. Though more cumbersome, it represents a more direct understanding of the style involved, for the technical criterion of thoroughbass accompaniment is by its very function inseparably connected with the emergence of the dramatic art forms that dominated the music of this era and that found their fulfillment in the works of Bach and Handel.

The names of the two great composers, both of whom were born in 1685, have been linked customarily, as have been those of Palestrina and Orlando di Lasso, who both died in 1594. But the attempt to derive a certain periodization from these dates remains in its ramifications inaccurate, as does the attempt to see any obvious parallel in the composers' artistic bequest and mission.

Bach and Handel were born in Saxon towns less than a hundred miles apart, and they entered their profession in the environment of the Protestant church. The legacy of Protestant church music, however, was imparted in diverse ways to the lives of the two masters. Bach, born into a family of town and church musicians, was heir to a tradition which, ranging over more than a century before his time and extending for generations after his own, stands for a unique hereditary history. Handel appears in a genealogy of more than two centuries as the only musician. His was a well-to-do bourgeois family in which artistic and intellectual tendencies were represented rather through the goldsmith's trade and the ministry. His father, a court physician, had not looked with favor upon the son's studies for the musical profession.

This may help to explain the divergent course of the two careers. Bach was committed to an overwhelming artistic inheritance; Handel, throughout his life, was an artist of absolute independence. Bach's work unfolded entirely on German soil, whereas Handel's extended through Europe, became Italianized and eventually Anglicized to the astounding degree that English music became thoroughly shaped by the Handelian style. But in Bach's German church cantatas and Passion settings, and in Handel's English oratorios, the music drama of what we have come to call the age of the Baroque reached its final form.

Johann Pachelbel, from a keyboard partita on a chorale

Copied by the Bach student, Heinrich Nikolaus Gerber

It is also a final phase of the composers' lives with which the documents before us are concerned. Though merely provided as a formality, Bach's signatures are of particular historical significance because they are the last we have from his hand--the signature bearing the latest date had, in fact, to be supplied by his son Johann Christian because of the master's increasing blindness. And they verify the fact that Bach's duties had remained those of a church musician and official. Handel's autograph happens to be likewise written within a short period before the onset of blindness. But he was to resist the decline of his powers for yet another decade, in which his work remained devoted to English oratorio, the form which was his most original creation.

Opera, which all but absorbed musical life in Italy, had experienced a different fate in the countries north of the Alps. In France, it had risen to prime importance at the court through the work of an Italian, Giovanni Battista Lulli, who, as Jean Baptiste Lully, gave opera its French guise and strengthened its nature by imparting to it a salient feature, the overture, which in turn came to be combined with operatic ballets to form the orchestral suite. In Germany, devastated by the war that raged in the first half of the seventeenth century, opera gained its place in society with much delay, and for a long time it survived essentially as an Italian import. In England, removed from the source of opera by a continent and the sea, it was considered totally alien--in the words of the satirist Samuel Johnson, "an exotic and irrational entertainment." Whereas in Germany music drama had found its way into the Protestant cantata and dramatic setting of the Gospel story, England had essentially resisted these developments. The very term opera appeared in English music first in the The Beggar's Opera (1728), written in open defiance of Handel's introduction of Italian opera to London audiences.

Handel's opera enterprise, desired and supported by the English aristocracy and a primary challenge of absorbing fascination to the composer, eventually failed. Relying on Italian singers whose fame and virtuosity was its principal attraction, opera was undeniably foreign to the wider English audience. Its Italian texts, dealing with intrigues from unfamiliar history, had no meaning for its listeners. And from a protracted struggle between the composer and his public emerged, as a solution, English oratorio, a new form in which English texts, chosen predominantly (though by no means exclusively) from the Old Testament, were presented by English singers (or foreign artists who had adapted their performance to the English language). It was the form that eventually raised the composer to the level of a national hero.

The Reformation had created a Church of the State in England; yet the Anglican rite, despite all violent reactions to "popish" tendencies, stayed closer to the Roman rite than German Protestantism. Henry Purcell, "true genius of the Restoration," 3 was one of the first openly to embrace the new dramatic forms in England, and in his sacred and secular works English seventeenth-century music found its finest expression. It was through the tragically early death of Purcell that John Blow, an able composer, though of minor stature, emerged as the leading English musician of the waning seventeenth century. He was a teacher and predecessor of Purcell as court composer and Master of the Chapel Royal, but in the end also his successor. In his anthems and odes we encounter what had become the predominant forms of English music, forms that were to contribute decisively to the genesis of English oratorio.

Unlike Bach, Handel was surrounded by musicians who, like himself, were immigrants and had sought their fortune in a country representing "a parliamentary state with free institutions alongside a Europe ruled by absolutism." 4 German musicians took a significant part in the Royal Band that, after 1714, served a German prince as ruler, and to German musicians was entrusted the musical instruction of the nobility. Handel's official court appointment was that of Royal Music Master, and his course of instruction for Anne, the eldest of the daughters of George I, is preserved. 5 A counterpart to this extraordinary didactic document is a theoretical discourse by John Christopher (Johann Christoph) Pepusch. Apparently written for the daughter of a prominent English official, and still unpublished, it reflects the authority this German musician enjoyed as a theorist and teacher. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Ancient Music, a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a widely respected composer. Handel had entrusted his own student John Christopher Smith (later his assistant and successor as Royal Music Master) to the tutelage of Pepusch, and he was at times closely associated with Pepusch in his work, though the fact that Pepusch had composed music for The Beggar's Opera finally led to an estrangement.

As if to summarize the large chapter of music history we have considered in this section, the sequence of the collection's documents leads finally to the title most universally applied in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries to dramatic works of secular as well as sacred nature--dramma per musica. It appears in a work by Georg Philipp Telemann (who rearranged the letters of his name in his often preferred pseudonym Melante), Bach's and Handel's most celebrated and prolific contemporary. Telemann was originally given preference to Bach as a candidate for the office of Cantor at St. Thomas's in Leipzig, but he declined the position in favor of the musical directorship at the churches of the North German metropolis of Hamburg, a position in which he was to be succeeded by his godson, C.P. E. Bach. In fact, a lifelong friendship connected him with Bach and Handel, both of whom he outlived, though his name was ultimately overshadowed by theirs.

The composer's signature in the upper right-hand corner shows his pseudonym "Melante." Though crossed out, the customary pattern of a French overture, with its dotted rhythm of an opening section and a subsequent fugue in livelier rhythmic motion, can be recognized clearly. The theme for the latter, revised at the end of the last four staves, appears there in a more marked melodic contour than in the earlier version above. History is the most partial of the sciences. When it becomes enamored of a man, it loves him jealously; it will not even hear of others. Since the day when the greatness of Johann Sebastian Bach was admitted, all that was great in his lifetime has become less than nothing. The world has hardly been able to forgive Handel for the impertinence of having had as great a genius as Bach's and a much greater success. The rest have fallen into dust; and there is no dust so dry as that of Telemann, whom posterity has forced to pay for the insolent victory which he won over Bach in his lifetime.

These words by Romain Rolland, the French writer and music historian, were somewhat superseded in years closer to our time, and they characterize the varying approach posterity has taken to the climax of an epoch. 6 Telemann's greatest dramatic works were written at the time Mozart composed his first sonatas and symphonies, and whatever judgment is accorded his stature, he was the last illustrious master of the musical Baroque.

• Samples from his works are quoted in Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg's Abhandlung von der Fuge (Berlin: A. Haide, and J. C. Spener, 1753/1754), a work intended to summarize the principles of Bach's fugal style. [ Return to text ]
• Hermann Rauschning, Geschichte der Musik und Musikpflege in Danzig (Danzig, 1931), p. 50. [ Return to text ]
• See Manfred F. Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York: Norton, 1947), pp. 203ff. [ Return to text ]
• Paul Henry Lang, George Frideric Handel (New York: Norton, 1966), p. 112. [ Return to text ]
• Hallische Händel-Ausgabe, suppl., vol. I (Kassel and Leipzig, 1978). [ Return to text ]
• "The Autobiography of a Forgotten Master: Telemann," in A Musical Tour Through the Land of the Past (New York: Holt&Co., 1922), pp. 97-144. [ Return to text ]

Classicism and Romanticism

In a penetrating essay, Friedrich Blume, the eminent music encyclopedist of the twentieth century, has convincingly argued that Classicism and Romanticism were not opposed but rather collateral and complementary tendencies which have guided the arts since the eighteenth century. 1 Both meant a certain return to the ideals of the past. The word classic, which ever since the days of the Roman Empire applied to that which was in a "class" by itself, and hence exemplary, was now applied to the art of antiquity as such, whereas the word romantic harkens back to the "roman," the medieval epic, and thus to a more recent past that had developed a folklore and art born from the mist of northern climates rather than the southern sun. In distinction to classic clarity, equilibrium, and remoteness, its spirit is that of varying immediacy, of emotional changes of mood, of that which is not deliberately measured but passionate and fantastic, dreamlike and mysterious--"romantic."

The juxtaposition of heterogeneous elements might be seen as the rightful bequest of dramatic art, and in ever new ways music was ruled by drama. Opera itself had developed into two contrasting forms: serious opera, opera seria , and comic opera, opera buffa . The latter had evolved especially in the south of Italy, in Naples, at the hands of Alessandro Scarlatti and his followers Leonardo Leo and Giovanni Battista Pergolesi. It dealt with contemporary types and situations, rather than subjects of history and mythology, and it contributed an enlivening element to opera: ensemble. That which in spoken drama is not possible, the simultaneous expression of different personages and moods, now gave polyphony a novel function which, as we shall see, also greatly influenced instrumental music.

Opera seria was dominated for a long time by its famed librettist, Pietro Metastasio, himself a gifted musician. But the vitality of the traditional form gradually declined, and Romain Rolland has shown that Metastasio's influence heralded much of the impending reform of opera. 2 As we know, it was brought about--in part through the encounter with the aged Handel--by the epochal works of Christoph Willibald von Gluck, whose first reform opera significantly returned to the subject of Orfeo .

The key figure in the rise of opera buffa was Pergolesi, who in his short life veritably changed operatic history. His famous miniature, La Serva Padrona (The Servant as Mistress), was designed, in the prevalent manner of early opera buffa, as intermezzo scenes to be presented between the acts of an opera seria. But its title was symbolic; the young subsidiary form was destined to assume a ruling role. We sense here the dawn of the Age of Revolution. And it was similarly reflected in another fundamental development of eighteenth-century music. The concerto which, in the works of such Italian masters as Arcangelo Corelli and Antonio Vivaldi as well as in the works of Bach and Handel, had risen to leadership in instrumental music, began to share this leadership with a new genre. Alessandro Scarlatti transformed the old opera overture of Lullian style, with its ceremoniously slow- paced beginning (often resumed for the ending), reversing its slow and fast sections. His overtures, for which he adopted the age-old term sinfonia , opened and closed in a lively (allegro) tempo, and the new form eventually gained independence in the Classical symphony. Its independence became complete. What the small introduction had assimilated from the drama acted out by the singers took on a new dramatic guise. It rose from the orchestra pit (or its equivalent) and conquered the stage. Its hero and heroine were themes and instrumental timbres, and, aided by the operatic ensemble technique, a new and purely instrumental form arose that dominated musical life for the era to come.

One of the first important symphonists was C. P. E. Bach, and in the legacy of J. S. Bach's work we recognize again the oscillating roles of classic and romantic orientation. Though Bach had close to a hundred students, his posthumous recognition grew slowly, but to those who recognized and understood his greatness, his work assumed the stature of an ideal model described in words that are born of the spirit of Classicism. Johann Philipp Kirnberger, court conductor in Berlin who had been Bach's foremost disciple in later years, published a two-volume treatise, The Art of Composition (Die Kunst des reinen Satzes , 1774/1779)--an art to be obtained by reducing, as he said, "the method of the late J. S. Bach to principles." And Kirnberger's Berlin colleague, Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg, prompted by the appearance of Bach's Art of Fugue to issue a Manual of Fugue (Abhandlung von der Fuge, 1753/54), speaks of "principles of an art" in dedicating his work to Bach's two oldest sons.

Johann Friedrich Reichardt, Berlin court conductor in later years, extolled Bach's chorales as "the highest achievement of German art" and referred to Bach as "the greatest harmonist of all times and nations." This statement is all the more interesting because it came from one of the principal representatives of the modern form of singspiel, the German counterpart to opera buffa. But the new and old worlds of music met and crossed in many ways; Johann Adam Hiller, also active in Berlin as a singspiel composer, became one of the successors to Bach's Leipzig office.

Thus we are dealing with a greatly widened array of musical personalities and trends, and it is a characteristic phenomenon of eighteenth-century music that it produced the first music historians offering an overview of the development of different styles. The learned Padre Giambattista Martini, author of a three-volume history of the music of antiquity and teacher of Bach's youngest son, Johann Christian, and of Mozart, spoke again of "the world famous Bach." The English historian Charles Burney, whose History of Music (1776-1789) stands out among the similar works of the period, failed to deal with Bach's work, but his praise of Bach was reported by a contemporary. Samuel Wesley, the eminent organist who was the first to make Bach's works known in England and who in veneration of the Leipzig master had named his son Sebastian, related in a letter to a colleague that, in conversation, Burney "evinced the most cordial veneration for our Sacred Musician."

In the end, the Romantics claimed Bach as their own and made his works known to the whole world. We know of Mendelssohn's epochal revival of the St. Matthew Passion, aided by his teacher Karl Friedrich Zelter who had revived Bach's motets with his Berlin Singakademie , and it was also Mendelssohn who gave the first recital entirely devoted to Bach's organ works. His influence brought about a decisive change, for while the name Bach had remained known to everyone throughout the eighteenth century, it had referred generally to one or the other of Bach's famous sons, and to works which were quite removed from the sphere of Johann Sebastian Bach. When Mozart said in a letter to his father from Paris in 1778 "Kapellmeister Bach is about to arrive . . . as you know, I love and revere him with all my heart," he spoke of Johann Christian Bach; and when Haydn acknowledged his great debt to Bach, he referred to Philipp Emanuel.

It was the domain of the sonata, the string quartet, and the symphony--the last amply paying back to its parent form what debt of origin it owed--that had taken over the music of the later eighteenth century. In the narrower sense, the classic era of music is understood to mean Viennese Classicism, the style that arose in the works of Haydn and Mozart. Yet the critical phase in the evolution of Haydn's symphonic work has become known as the "Romantic crisis" in his creative career.

Haydn's long life extended from the first third of the eighteenth to the beginning of the nineteenth century. He wrote his greatest compositions in old age. One might say that the secret of his art was his remarkable power of rejuvenation. One of the strongest influences upon his work was the encounter with Mozart who, in turn, was profoundly influenced by Haydn, almost a quarter of a century his senior. The work of both masters embraced all genres. While Haydn virtually created the string quartet, his church music goes back to strong roots of the Baroque, and his indebtedness in the oratorio unequivocally to Handel. In his operas he followed such Italian composers as Giovanni Paisiello and Domenico Cimarosa; in his piano works he was the disciple of C. P. E. Bach; but in his symphonies, taking their point of departure from such works as those by the Imperial court composer Georg Christoph Wagenseil, he was at his most Viennese. All of these forms he led to consummate heights. Yet posterity has almost forgotten that, like Bach's, Haydn's name held a dual meaning in its time. It is in the a cappella music of Michael Haydn, who served with Mozart at the court of Salzburg, and whose work has been overshadowed by that of his older brother, that the Classic image was most truly revealed to the young Schubert. As a student, Schubert noted after a vocal trio (preserved only in fragmentary form) "written in the manner of Haydn"--by which he meant the style of Michael Haydn-­ and in a letter he wrote in later years to his brother, Schubert described his thoughts in visiting a monument erected to Michael Haydn: "May your calm, clear spirit be imparted to me, cherished Haydn; though I can never be so calm and clear, no one on earth reveres you as dearly as I."

A similar sense of affection, absent from documents of earlier periods, is expressed in the letter of dedication to Joseph Haydn that accompanied the collection of Mozart's six string quartets subsequently published as Opus X, his masterwork in the genre. The wide range of Mozartiana in this collection attests to an equally wide range of close personal attachments. Mozart biography has given honored places to Leopold Mozart, the composer's father who provided the child prodigy with a uniquely rich education and who remained an important figure in later phases of his professional life; to his sister Maria Anna ("Nannerl") who shared his appearances in the early travels throughout Europe with their father; to Franz Xaver Süssmayr, Mozart's pupil who is believed to have finished his teacher's last work, the Requiem; and to Thomas Attwood, whose course of studies under Mozart represents the most extraordinary didactic document from the waning eighteenth century. It is indicative of these associations that Mozart's handwriting has been confused with his father's, with Süssmayer's, and with Attwood's, and that it has taken scholars a long time to establish clear texts in the instances concerned.

Elation and tragedy were intermingled in Mozart's short life--less than half the span of Haydn's. It has been difficult for posterity to understand fully that the ingratiating, romanticized rococo idol grew to a heroic figure, the classic master, in very young years, and that, in fact, utter seriousness permeated the life of the playful artist at all times. The Age of the Revolution here, too, cast its shadow over the career of the composer who failed to obtain the traditional supportive court or church position, and who was less suited to take on the lot of an independent position in society than Handel before and Beethoven after him.

Whereas he was the student of Haydn in his string quartets, his symphonies influenced the work of the older master, and the latter clearly admitted Mozart's superiority in the genre of opera. Yet the encounter with Haydn remained the turning point in his artistic orientation; it guided him to a new exploration of polyphony and an assimilation of styles of the past with which he became acquainted through the eminent music collection of Haydn's later oratorio librettist, the imperial court librarian Gottfried van Swieten.

Mozart's blending of Italian melody and German counterpoint, his power of synthesis and miraculously fertile imagination, and in particular his power of characterization raised opera buffa to a dramatic form that spoke to the audience in earnest. Mozart had the good fortune to find an accomplished librettist in the Vienna court poet Lorenzo da Ponte, who provided him with his most important opera buffa texts. With Figaro , the work in which Pergolesi's theme of the superiority of the servant is carried to new heights through the text of Beaumarchais that da Ponte adapted, opera buffa became a truly human drama, though this drama never denies the parentage of comic opera. The demonic story of Don Giovanni was entitled dramma giocoso . With the The Magic Flute , written for a lowly suburban theater of Vienna, Mozart transformed the buffoonery of the German singspiel to what became the foundation of German grand opera.

The three generations of the masters of Viennese Classicism overlap in striking manner. By the time Haydn wrote his last symphonies and quartets and Mozart wrote his last operas, the young Beethoven had journeyed to Vienna in order to study with Mozart. His early works had already reached the international market, but he still felt the need for a concentrated course of study. This fact, which found a parallel in Schubert's career, is indicative of the greatly widened perspective from which a modern generation of composers viewed the craft. Beethoven was called back to his hometown, Bonn, where he was in service at the Electoral court. When he was able to return to Vienna, several years later, Mozart had died; Beethoven turned to Haydn for instruction, and his studies have been preserved. Impatient about his progress, he secretly supplemented his lessons in consultation with the Viennese singspiel composer Johann Schenk, a student of Wagenseil. But once again, the facts were romanticized by posterity. The document that combines the handwriting of Beethoven with that of Haydn shows a very deliberate survey of the technique of strict counterpoint. The exchange of the aged master and his student was anything but superficial or--as has often been asserted--a failure, and it is characteristic of the situation that when Haydn left on his second journey for engagements in England (a journey on which Beethoven originally was to accompany him), Beethoven embarked on further contrapuntal study with Haydn's friend Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Master of the Cathedral Chapel in Vienna; at the same time he took up studies in the Italian vocal style with the Viennese court composer Antonio Salieri.

The enlarged scope of didactic commitment reflects the musical crosscurrents at the turn of the century. Salieri, whose role in music history has come down mainly (and unjustly) as that of Mozart's antagonist, represented a tradition that remained of great importance to a generation no longer readily conversant with it--Italian opera. His eminent pedagogical influence is reflected in the fact that it led from his training of the choirboys as Master of the Imperial Chapel to the establishment of the Vienna Conservatory. He was the teacher of the young Schubert and, in later years, of Meyerbeer and Liszt. Several of his contemporaries are remembered principally through their teaching manuals and collections of methodical studies. In the case of Stanislao Mattei, the student of Padre Martini, and that of Luigi Cherubini, Inspecteur and subsequently director of the Paris Conservatory, it was the contrapuntal legacy that was handed down in their works; in those of Ignaz Pleyel, Muzio Clementi, and Karl Czerny, it was the new pianistic art; and in Rodolphe Kreutzer's famous Etude s, that of classical violin virtuosity.

We tend to forget that these preceptors of compositional and instrumental technique were composers in their own right and of deserved recognition. Kreutzer's operas, though relegated to oblivion, were not without influence upon the works of later generations, and Cherubini's sacred and dramatic works were highly regarded by Beethoven (who also honored Kreutzer with the dedication of his Sonata Opus 47). Clementi was ranked next to Mozart in his time; Pleyel next to Haydn (whose devoted student he was). But the fame of Czerny, whom Beethoven had singled out as a piano pupil and whose guidance as a teacher became decisive upon the young Liszt, rested solely, as it does now, on his genius of piano pedagogy.

A new situation arose in music history by which the domains of creative and interpretive arts were beginning to be separated. Nor did performance remain limited to interpretation; more than ever before, it now took on a role of its own. It is epitomized in the thoroughly Romantic figure of the travelling virtuoso, for which Niccolò Paganini, the demonic violinist, stands as a symbol for all times. And it extended into all spheres of performance. A particularly arresting example is the career of Domenico Dragonetti, the "Paganini of the double bass," whose stupendous proficiency on his instrument evidently influenced the design of passages in the fifth and ninth symphonies of Beethoven, with whom he was on friendly terms.

A counterpart to the specialized performer became the specialized teacher. The theorists of past ages, such as Zarlino, Artusi, or Kirnberger, were active and appreciated as composers and performers in the first place. But Simon Sechter, the leading Viennese theorist in the first half of the nineteenth century, to whom Schubert still turned for advice in his last days, represented a new profession, that of "Professor of Thoroughbass and Composition," at the Vienna Conservatory, while his allegedly more than 8,000 compositions remained unknown. But the pervading influence he exerted in his time is characterized by the fact that toward the end of his long tenure he became the trusted mentor of Anton Bruckner who, in fact, succeeded him in his professorship at the Conservatory. Whereas Sechter is remembered as a famous teacher, the memory of the English composer Thomas Attwood lives on as that of a famous student. Son of a British court musician, the gifted young member of the Chapel Royal had received a stipend from the Prince of Wales to take up studies in Italy. Though pursued under two noted Neapolitan maestri , they proved in the end not satisfactory, and Attwood, "perceiving the declineof the Italian school and foreseeing the ascendancy of that of Germany . . . proceeded to Vienna and immediately became a pupil of Mozart." 3

We owe it to the association with Attwood that Mozart's work as a teacher is fully documented. The course of studies he designed for the student, who became a close friend, covered the better part of two years; the manuscript was carefully preserved by Attwood and has been published. 4 Attwood, in later years organist at St. Paul's and composer-in-ordinary of the Chapel Royal, became the guardian of the legacy of Viennese Classicism. It was he who was principally responsible for introducing Mozart's and Beethoven's symphonic work in England. But in equal measure he became the advocate of the young German Romantics and of the nineteenth-century Bach renaissance. The year in which Mendelssohn gave his epochal performance of Bach's St. Matthew Passion also marked his first journey to England, on which he was warmly welcomed by the sixty-four-year-old Attwood. The two composers, though of unequal stature, found themselves devoted to some of the same ideals. Britain, as we know, became Mendelssohn's second homeland, and a remarkable association developed between the representatives of the old and young generations--of what we have to come to call the Classic and Romantic ages of music.

Nowhere are Classic form and Romantic expression more powerfully blended than in the work of Beethoven. Popular appellations have somewhat superficially attached the defiance of fate to his Fifth Symphony and the serene tranquillity of moonlight to his Piano Sonata op. 27, No. 2. But the designation Grande Sonate Pathétique for his Piano Sonata op. 13, written before his first quartets, concertos and symphonies, and that of Sinfonia Eroica for his Third Symphony, are his own. One of his biographers called Beethoven the "man who freed music," a dictum which is again of flimsy nature. Yet Beethoven was totally a son of the Revolutionary Age. He tore up the dedication of his Third Symphony to Napoleon when Bonaparte declared himself emperor. He was devoted to the revolutionary ideas of liberté and egalité ; and the ideal of fraternité is glorified in the ode that concludes his Ninth Symphony. It is the rebellion of the artist that placed Beethoven in his era. He wrote to Count Lichnowsky, soon after dedicating the Sonate Pathétique to him, "Prince, what you are you are by the accident of birth; what I am, I am of myself." But no artist ever wrestled more intensely with law and order, with classical discipline, than Beethoven. Whereas the Romantics were to claim him as theirs, his life work proceeded along the lines of the Classic forms. It is no mere accident that the Beethoveniana of this collection include, with samples from his sketches--his ubiquitous detailed working material--his copy from one of Mozart's works. Beyond the classical genres of sonata, quartet and symphony, he even turned to opera, though it represented a world essentially foreign to him, and his vocal works attest to some of the greatest triumphs of his symphonic language.

When Beethoven undertook the composition of Fidelio (originally Leonore ), the genre of opera had undergone wide proliferation. We have seen that the two prototypes, opera seria and opera buffa , were interrelated from the beginning: the latter arose in intermezzo performances from the former. By and large, it was to opera buffa that the future belonged. But its original subject matter, the antagonism of master and servant, had lost its significance, or rather, the human and social implications had widened to the point where comic elements were intermingled with genuine drama and tragedy. Nevertheless, in Gioacchino Rossini's Barber of Seville , whose story came from the same literary source as Mozart's Figaro , the old opera buffa found a lasting monument whose quality remained unattained in any of the works by his contemporaries.

Opera seria was, one might say, buried with Mozart's last opera, La Clemenza di Tito , commissioned for the coronation of Emperor Leopold II. While the score contains some of Mozart's finest writing, the work has suffered, from the outset and in the reception of posterity, because the genre itself was beginning to be superseded by what became " Grand Opéra ," the genre that, more than any other, reflected the Revolutionary Age. Thus we speak of "Heroic Opera" and the type of work based on the theme of liberation, "Rescue Opera," the latter owing its nature particularly to subjects favored in French literary models of the time. It was this type that caught Beethoven's interest. Fidelio is a genuine rescue opera, its text going back to a work by the French librettist Jean Nicolas Bouilly, but arranged for Beethoven by the Viennese opera manager Joseph von Sonnleithner, member of a prominent family to whose influence the development of Vienna's musical life in the activities of opera, concert stage, salon, and conservatory was indebted in many ways.

It is of significance that Beethoven's copy of portions from Mozart's Don Giovanni are adapted to German text. Fidelio , though of French origin, and though its plot is set in Spain, is a German opera, adhering even to the spoken dialogue of the singspiel tradition. After the delayed starts of its history, German opera developed rather slowly. The German-born Giacomo Meyerbeer experienced his first triumphs in Italy, where he became one of the foremost followers of Rossini. But his success carried him to France, and as a representative of Grand Opéra , he became the most celebrated French opera composer of his time. A national school of German opera found its beginning with the work of Carl Maria von Weber, a fellow student of Meyerbeer under Georg Joseph (Abbé) Vogler, court conductor in Darmstadt, whose adventuresome career developed under Italian and French, as well as German, influence.

Wagner was to call Weber "the most German of all musicians." In his masterpiece Der Freischütz (the title, difficult to translate, describes the figure of a marksman whose marksmanship is given free reign through a pact with the devil) Weber created what he himself called a "Romantic opera." The typical elements of German poetic Romanticism, the world of the German fairy tale, the folklore and superstitions of German forest country, the horn calls, peasant dances, village lyricism are all there, as well as demonic motifs of Romantic saga. They are merged into a musical language that was as fresh and sound in its dramatic originality as it was responsive to the trends of the time, and Weber's work had a large following. Heinrich Marschner, whose name is remembered, though his operas are all but forgotten, worked in close collaboration with Weber as conductor at the Dresden court opera. With Marschner, opera entered into a German middle class milieu characterized by the word Biedermeier (a type of honest but somewhat humdrum citizen). It represented a welcome reaction to the increasing shallowness and mannerism of heroic librettos. But the works it produced owed their place in history to popularity rather than vitality. Thus the slightly later operas by Albert Lortzing likewise remain mere names. Yet in the work of Lortzing, who returned with his Undine to the field of grand opera, we also find the seeds of Wagnerian music drama.

The German-born Friedrich von Flotow, whose works have retained a somewhat uneasy place in the repertory, partly because of their sentimental appeal, transplanted the Biedermeier opera to France; it was left to a later German-born French opera composer, Jacques Offenbach, to produce some lasting works derived from the genre. With Offenbach, however, the opera of bourgeois society was transformed to the entertaining and satirical operetta, though his great lyrical and dramatic gifts are revealed in the work that took its point of departure from the stories of the poet-artist-musician who was the embodiment of the German Romantic-- Tales of Hoffmann .

While the opera of German Romanticism had surrendered, in the end, to styles of French entertainment, the genre of operetta was to be glorified in the work of a Viennese composer, Johann Strauss. His popular operettas, above all Die Fledermaus (The Bat) were born of dance. Like his father, Johann Strauss the elder, he was the master of the waltz that dominated the imperial court of Vienna-­ and Europe--as its ancestral dance form, the minuet, had dominated the royal French court--and Europe--in the Age of Absolutism.

Italian opera, unlike German opera, always had solid traditions on which to draw; and they are evident in the works of the two principal opera composers Italy produced next to Rossini, neither, however, reaching his greatness--Gaetano Donizetti and Vincenzo Bellini. Donizetti's comic operas are the last fine examples of opera buffa, and they outshine his works in the serious vein, whereas Bellini's operas are entirely devoted to the glories of the human voice, though they do not measure up to the glories of the old bel canto. But both composers eventually forsook the Italian stage, turning to France. It was in Verdi's work that Italy finally recovered its leading role in operatic tradition, while Wagner's work established a totally new one in Germany.

Almost completely obscured by the great and lesser names of Classic and Romantic music is that of Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg, Swabian court conductor at the turn of the eighteenth century. Yet it deserves to be singled out, as it stands for a genre that, despite its own relative obscurity, marked a fresh departure of significance--the ballad. In its original meaning, the "dancing song," the ballad had a long and distinguished history, and the song as such is obviously the oldest of musical forms. But in the merging of musical Classicism and Romanticism, the term song--in its German version lied--acquired a new meaning. Greatly influenced by the poetry of Goethe and Schiller, Classical figures of German literature, the decisive phase in the history of the art song was heralded in works of such composers as Reichardt and Zelter (as well as in isolated examples by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven).

In the development leading to the Romantic lied, the special form of the ballad assumed an important role. The dancing character of the ballad had early receded to the choral refrain with which the narrative of a solo singer was rounded out. This narrative, dealing predominantly with ancient and medieval sagas and valiant stories of feudal times, turned in the works of Classic German poetry more and more to folklike renditions of adventuresome, mysterious, and not infrequently gruesome scenes. The new form of solo song whose accompaniment was determined by the ascendancy of the modern keyboard instrument, the piano, lent itself especially well to the ballad. In its terse structure, it served the dramatic tendencies of the time more directly than the elaborate opera, and thus the ballad holds a key position in a transitional phase of vocal styles.

Zumsteeg, who had become a friend of Schiller's in school days, became the prime representative of the ballad, and the direct way in which his work influenced that of Schubert can be gathered from the fact that Schubert's first song, "Hagar's Lament" ( Hagars Klage ), was modeled on Zumsteeg's ballad bearing the same title. Schubert's ballad Erlkönig , on a poem by Goethe and published four years later as his Opus 1, opens the literature of the Romantic song, and Schubert's more than six hundred contributions to the genre remained the chief component of the nineteenth-century song literature. The ballad, however, retained its own life and reached a high point in the works of Karl Loewe, a student of Zelter's and strongly influenced by Reichardt. Through these two early lied composers, Loewe had become acquainted with the world of Goethe and Schiller, but it is most characteristic of his work that as his Opus 1 he published settings of Erlkönig and Edward , the latter on the text of an old Scottish ballad that had served Schubert for one of his last songs.

Schubert has always been seen as a Januslike figure, "at times called the classicist of romanticism, at others the romanticist of classicism." 5 While this observation, germane to our discussion, is so convincingly true to the facts of stylistic analysis, it does not provide a key to the understanding of Schubert's creative nature. The same duality (which we have observed earlier in connection with the work of Beethoven) can be and has been ascribed to Brahms. Yet the blending of stylistic bequests must in each case merely be understood as an element characterizing, in different ways, overwhelmingly individual artistic personalities. Similarly, the epithet "Father of the Song" is as unjustly applied to Schubert as it does an injustice to the genre itself: it is the individuality of the Schubertian lied that explains the inception of a new literature.

The house in which Schubert was born, unchanged over the centuries, offers the visitor a most touching impression--the tiny dwelling of a schoolmaster's family, in which Schubert grew up as one of nineteen children. Salieri discovered the talent of the boy and accepted him into the Imperial Chapel. But Schubert's existence moved with remarkable directness into circles far removed from his background. His deep sense of literary values determined his work from the beginning, and he spent his short life in the company of highly cultivated young artists and poets. In the immense wealth of his songs, he grew to maturity immediately. But though the form of the song remained his own until his last composition, one might say that he departed from it to an extent often not fully realized. His genius sought expression in the Classical forms of the symphony and string quartet, and while he labored consciously and with unabating discipline under the shadow of Beethoven, he rose to equal the stature of the giant as did no later composer. His symphonies in B Minor (the "Unfinished") and C Major (the "Great"), his quartets in A and D Minor, and his last chamber music work, the String Quintet in C Major, mark the end of Classic instrumental literature. It is characteristic of Schubert's earnestness and modesty that toward the end of his life he became conscious of the fact that he had not mastered one particular form, the fugue. And it is well known that, two weeks before his death, he turned to Sechter for the discussion of some sketches of fugal compositions--the last music manuscript we have from his hand.

The forms of Classical chamber music and symphony remained the challenge for composers throughout the nineteenth century. Yet the Romantic song, as the century's most original creation, dominated the era to the extent that Mendelssohn wrote his famous "Songs without Words." Though they inaugurated the Romantic symphony, both Mendelssohn's and Schumann's best known major instrumental compositions are their concertos in which classic form was united with Romantic virtuosity. But the lives of these two masters, tragically short like Schubert's, produced a broad spectrum of highly original works. Schumann, barely in his twenties, also founded the first modern journal of music criticism that heralded the careers of Chopin and later Brahms. His many-sided work, guided by a wide vision of the Romantic scene, favors the fantastic element yet shows genuine lyrical strength. He was the greatest exponent of the German lied after Schubert. In his songs, the brilliance of the accompaniment often rises to leadership, and in extended postludes he tends to develop the poet's text to a level not reached by the voice but reflecting the finesse of his pianistic art and his power of interpretation.

There is something admirably sound about the gentle and refined figure of Mendelssohn. His work burst into maturity with his Overture for A Midsummer Night's Dream when he was seventeen, but he harnessed his great gift with elegant assuredness, and his amiable music exhibits true mastery. An intellectual by background and upbringing, he was always earnest, sincere, and wholly artistic in his work. More clearly devoted to the bequest of past generations than any other composer of his time, he yet remained entirely original. The Protestant chorale and the Handelian oratorio became all-important models for him, and though it was not given to his era to recover their original strength, this era was ennobled by Mendelssohn's historical orientation. Yet there is none of the historian in his brilliant violin concerto, his octet, or the First Walpurgis Night . Later ages, in turn, were unable to recover his finely controlled expression. He fully shared the problems of a post-Classical age, but he mastered them with the grace of his art.

Schubert, Schumann and Mendelssohn were composers for whom the range of Classic forms remained a natural working basis. But while their masterpieces were thus distributed over various genres, the emphasis of nineteenth-century music turned to composers devoted to a single form or medium--as if history were to acknowledge with a grand gesture that the opulence it had produced began to elude a comprehensive grasp. The career of the traveling virtuoso, writing works for his own appearances, was an isolated phenomenon in the time of Vivaldi; in the nineteenth century, however, it tended to dominate the musical scene. The triumphs of Paganini were paralleled in the appearances of the young Liszt, who became the greatest pianist of all times, and Liszt's activities as a composer were determined at first by his international success on the concert stage.

The most typical representative of the composer whose creative work was so closely focused on his own performance medium was Frédéric Chopin, whom Liszt hailed as his equal. Chopin's piano works mirror the world of the Romantic virtuoso to the extent that his concertos for piano and orchestra were almost completely neglected--by the composer who gave them the most sparsely developed accompaniment, as well as by posterity which knows the composer merely by his finely wrought preludes, polonaises, mazurkas, impromptus, nocturnes and waltzes. These compositions combine frail detail and intensely poetic expression with a passionate virtuosity that makes them a unique achievement in the keyboard literature, and Chopin's life work, once again prematurely ended, raised soloistic composition to a level unattained ever after.

The violin literature fared differently; and though the nineteenth century is studded with spectacular violin concertos, we are dealing here by and large with mere show pieces. The exceptions came from composers committed to the symphonic rather than the soloistic ideal, and it is characteristic of the merging of Romantic virtuosity and Classic form that one of the most popular violin concertos of the era bears the title symphony-- the Symphonie Espagnole by Edouard Lalo, a French composer of Spanish ancestry.

A gigantic rapprochement took place, more or less curiously brought about, by which the genres of opera, symphony and song met in new forms. In the case of Hector Berlioz, it was not the single instrument but their sum total--the vastly enlarged and technically perfected orchestra--that was the adopted "specialty." His Grand Traité d'instrumentation et d'orchestration (1844) became the classic of orchestration manuals, and in his works he explored the resources of the Romantic orchestra to their fullest. He called his symphonies, headed by the Symphonie Fantastique, "instrumental dramas," and in them he raised the concept of program music--purely instrumental music based on a literary source--to a new ideal. They embraced, once again, the genre of the concerto--the solo part in Harold in Italie was written with Paganini in mind. The monumental works of Berlioz include church music (his Requiem Mass and Te Deum), oratorios and operas, but in all of them he remained at heart the orchestrator. Despite their originality, his sacred works, in their grandiose sonority, negate the essence of the spiritual element, while staged drama negated, in fact, the artistic creed of program music.

Liszt, in the end dissatisfied with the career of the virtuoso and with compositions determined solely by the scope (albeit greatly widened) of his instrument, was inspired by the concept of program music in the work of Berlioz. At the height of his fame, he took up this new challenge and, turning now entirely to his creative work, arrived at a new symphonic form that became the model for a "New German School" whose influence actually extended well beyond Germany, the Tone Poem. His mastery of the Romantic orchestra was entirely beholden to symphonic principles of elaboration, and rather than following a "program," his works arose from a total conception that did not rely on descriptive details. In later years he wrote sacred oratorios and liturgical compositions, and just as his symphonic language stands in contrast to that of Berlioz by a thoroughly poetic approach, these choral works differ from those of Berlioz by a genuinely religious attitude. Liszt was a devoted Roman Catholic and, in later years, took minor orders as an abbé. His interests in all aspects of the music of his time developed on a wide scale throughout his life, and a host of students followed him to his centers of activity in Germany, Italy and Hungary.

Liszt was closely associated, both through his work and family ties, with Wagner (who married his daughter Cosima), and the extensive literary work of both composers provides revealing commentary on the ideals which they shared and which dominated the musical scene of the waning nineteenth century. Nevertheless, the two great exponents of the New German School were worlds apart. Whereas Liszt solved the challenges of over-ripe Romanticism by blending symphony and poem, Wagner announced that the time had come for a blending of all the arts and, in no way hesitant to suggest that the total artistic effort of past generations led to his own work, inaugurated a new concept, the Gesamtkunstwerk or Universal Art Work. That he could maintain such a claim is, in the end, due to his musical genius that triumphed over the problems posed by his complex artistic personality.

Wagner, in whose family the theater governed professional life, grew up under the influence of Weber and the early Romantic opera of Germany, but soon reached for the grand opera of France. A revolutionary to the core, he found himself fleeing from one country to another between successes and failures. It was in Switzerland that he wrote the text for his most towering work, the Ring of the Nibelung , and it bespeaks the magnitude of his planning that this work, originally designed as a single drama, grew into a cycle of four, as each text required the preface of a new one. The vastness of his conception becomes fully evident when we consider that, in setting the finished libretto to music, he stopped in the middle and, over a number of years, interspersed two of his most decisive, yet totally unlike dramatic works-- Tristan und Isolde and Die Meistersinger --before completing the Ring . The choice of his subject matter, ranging from romantic fairy tale and Nordic myth to the solid burgher milieu of the late medieval guild, was determined in different ways by a pervading idea of redemption, to which in his last work, Parsifal , he gave final form.

It is equally characteristic of Wagner's extraordinary career that he salvaged its perilously disintegrating fortunes by what had become an anachronism--princely subvention--and that this subvention came from a mentally ailing king, Ludwig II of Bavaria. The king, who built the fantastic castles in the Bavarian Alps, enabled Wagner to establish a shrine for the Universal Art Work--for what Wagner had termed the "Music of the Future"--in Bayreuth, formerly the residence of the rulers of a Franconian principality, and a place of pilgrimage for an international opera audience ever since.

While Wagner appears as the most powerful figure of nineteenth-century music, he was destined to share this place with a composer whose work was the very antithesis of Wagner's Gesamtkunstwerk -­ Giuseppe Verdi. Born in the same year as Wagner, Verdi was, like Wagner, politically involved in his younger years, and his name became for a time the very symbol of the risorgimento , the rise of a free Italy. But unlike Wagner, he freed his own work in later years from national connotations. He became a national hero through the sheer power of his music, and the performance of Aida , commissioned to mark the historic opening of the Suez Canal, stands as the first truly international musical event.

It remains problematic to compare the two great representatives of nineteenth-century opera, the egocentric Wagner and the philanthropic Verdi: the creator of the new "music drama" who-­ mistakenly--considered himself first and foremost a literary figure, and the consummate master of traditional Italian opera which Wagner considered superseded. While the aims of their art were so diverse as virtually to defy comparison, their techniques show some surprising similarities. Wagner considered himself the heir of Beethoven, and the Beethovenian symphonic development of musical ideas assumed in Wagner's scores the role of the narrator who, like the ancient Greek chorus, interpreted dramatic continuity and meaning. His well-known orchestral device of using recurring and "guiding" melodies (leitmotives), however, was not his own invention. It appears in Verdi's works as well as those of other composers of the time. Yet while in Wagner's language the orchestral comment became the primary agent in conveying dramatic situations and philosophical concepts, in Verdi's works the human voice and human drama rule throughout. His roles eschew the supernatural and the saga; the brooding elements of Wagner's poetry and music were foreign to him. He was the supreme operista, and his last two works, Otello and Falstaff , written when the composer was at a very advanced age, are lasting monuments to the old opera seria and opera buffa.

There is only one nineteenth-century opera that has equaled the stature and popularity of Wagner's and Verdi's works: Bizet's Carmen ; in fact, this work has become the most popular opera in history. Georges Bizet, a highly educated musician, was by no means what history made of him: the composer of a single work. But Carmen became a world success because here the composer's great gifts merged with the tendencies of his time in a unique manner. The characterization of a heroine who is also the villain and murdered on stage in the final scene took unusual dramatic skill. It reflected the fin de siècle trend of Realism, a strong reaction to the gentleness of early Romanticism, and the choice of setting, drawing on Spanish and gypsy themes, was guided by another typical expression of the declining Romantic age, Exoticism. Bizet treated the subject with a surprisingly light hand, and his delicate and invariably interesting orchestration borders on the finesse of chamber music. He did not live to witness his triumph; the work was initially a failure that may have contributed to the composer's untimely death.

Bizet's Carmen , despite the enduring qualities of the work, signals a moribund epoch. Realism was met immediately with yet another reaction, Impressionism. The Romantic world withdrew into its most refined utterances, and in the last of the famous French operas, Claude Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande, music no longer presents, it merely suggests the drama. Its frailty has a wonderful strength of its own, and its miraculously enriched palette of subtle colors heralds a new century and a new age.

As in all phases of history, what appears as a deltalike disintegration of a major era actually carries the seeds of significant rejuvenation and integration. A final reconstruction of Romantic expression and Classic form entered the music of the declining nineteenth century in the work of several major symphonists who, like the symphonists of Viennese Classicism, contributed to a large array of musical genres while being especially committed to the instrumental idiom. Vienna again claimed its place as a European musical capital in the works of Johannes Brahms and Anton Bruckner--as in the twentieth century it was to see the rise of a "Second Viennese School." The concept of a "School," however, would in no way fit the work of the two composers who dominated the Viennese musical scene in the last decades of the nineteenth century, because of the radical difference in their styles and because of a renewed emergence of the symphony at the hands of such entirely heterogeneous composers as Tchaikovsky, Dvorák, and César Franck. But that the traditional symphonic structure was by no means exhausted was amply borne out by their work and their influence that lasted well into the twentieth century.

The personalities of Brahms, the pianist, and Bruckner, the organist, strongly exemplify the contrast of Northern Protestantism and Southern Catholicism. They found their way early to choral works inspired by the new role of choral music in society--both of them conducted various amateur choral organizations. In Bruckner's work, however, the choral medium remained closely tied to the service of worship, and religious mysticism was to be carried into his symphonic work. The symphonic bequest of Brahms, on the other hand, is entirely Beethovenian, and the model of Beethoven remained a fundamental challenge throughout his life. As he embarked upon the large form, he found himself immediately in a crisis; what was to be his first symphony turned into a piano concerto. But from the young composer's crisis arose works marked both by overwhelming beauty and a conscientious working procedure that produced abundant, though always highly integrated, proportions. Like Beethoven, he returned to the piano concerto; but against Beethoven's five stand only two; against Beethoven's nine symphonies stand four. Like Beethoven, Brahms wrote one violin concerto that has remained a lasting work in the repertoire, as did Tchaikovsky (and as had Mendelssohn before him); and we might add to this list the G Minor Violin Concerto by Max Bruch, a composer close in orientation to Brahms, though he did not reach his stature.

Bruckner's symphonic work towers over the orchestral music of the late nineteenth century by its sheer monumentality. It is a monumentality seemingly inconsistent with the touching naiveté of a composer who dedicated one of his symphonies "to the dear Lord," and who pleaded with the emperor to call a halt to the bad reviews his works were receiving--but indeed only seemingly so. His simple soul was imbued with genius. His nine symphonies are related to one another in a vast cycle not unlike Wagner's tetralogy. Wagnerian is the language of his harmony and orchestration. But his work is the antithesis of Romantic music drama; it reaches back beyond the world of Schubertian lyricism to that of the great Catholic past, yet in epic dimensions that bring the history of the nineteenth-century symphony to a close.

The reconciliation of Romantic spirit and Classic tradition was a universal phenomenon that pervaded the music of Europe. When we speak of national "schools," in Russia, Bohemia and Scandinavia, we actually refer to individual expressions in the same process, although individuality defies such a generalization, as we are reminded in the cases of some bold innovations. Yet in a certain way even France, with its glorious legacy of music, developed a "school" that, on the whole departing from opera, reflected the age of Brahms and Bruckner. Like Bruckner, arriving at the symphonic form through his work as an organist, César Franck dealt in new ways with the old form. Like Brahms, Franck and his followers returned to a variety of classic genres which met with fresh interest and the support of a Societé Nationale de Musique established through the initiative of Camille Saint-Saëns, a composer versed and successful in veritably all musical forms. The most colorful of a group called the "Russian five," Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov was also the first Russian composer to write a symphony. Standing apart from this group, Tchaikovsky, the single nineteenth-century Russian composer of truly European training and orientation, was essentially a traditionalist, though of eminent stature. But in the last of the "five"--Modest Petrovitch Musorgsky--Russia gave to nineteenth-century music a totally original and overpowering figure. A number of nineteenth-century composers such as Bruch, Saint- Saëns, and his student Gabriél Fauré, saw the Classic-Romantic tradition into the new century--Dvorák, significantly, into the New World.

In concluding our survey of the epochs of musical Classicism and Romanticism, we must pay tribute once more to the role of the interpreter. As we have observed, composer and performer, creative and interpretive art, tended to claim individually defined domains at the rise of the nineteenth century. In the process, the role of the interpreter gained in originality and importance. A new key figure now took command of the concert stage and the opera pit: the professional conductor. Liszt and Wagner, like earlier composers, were professional conductors in their own right--the premiere of Wagner's Lohengrin was conducted by Liszt. But the premiere performances of Tristan and Die Meistersinger were in the hands of an acknowledged specialist, Hans von Bülow. A student of Liszt, whose daughter Cosima was espoused to him in first marriage, von Bülow became the chief interpreter of Wagner's and later of Brahms's work. He set the model for the modern career of the orchestral disciplinarian and virtuoso conductor. Public attendance at civic concerts had grown considerably, and the works of the masters, interpreted by professional conductors, became subject to further interpretation through daily reviews in which the public was served by professional critics.

Eduard Hanslick, prototype of the powerful and domineering critic, is known for his relentless attacks upon Wagner's and Bruckner's work (it was he who prompted Bruckner's plea for the emperor's protection) as well as for his loyal support of the work of Brahms. But posterity has unjustly judged this knowledgeable guardian of classic principles a belligerent misanthrope. Though seemingly conservative, he was ahead of his time in sensing in its musical grandeur the dangers of a decline. Hanslick was the first to be appointed to the faculty of the University of Vienna to represent music as an integral part of the academic curriculum, and chairs of music had meanwhile been established also at other universities. The professorship at the University of Berlin was held in Hanslick's time by Heinrich Bellermann, a scholar whose influence was of a more broadly didactic, rather than polemic, kind. Devoted to the a cappella ideal that had been reawakened in the early part of the nineteenth century, he freshly interpreted the roots of its pedagogy and issued the first modern textbook of counterpoint. It was of decisive influence on numerous subsequent courses of instruction in a period in which composer, performer, and audience alike began to obtain a more clearly defined view of past musical styles.

When Liszt gave the first performance of Lohengrin, the concertmaster of the orchestra was the nineteen-year-old Joseph Joachim. One of the finest interpreters of the era, Joachim was a musician of comprehensive command. It was he who called Schumann's attention to the young Brahms. His artistry inspired the violin concertos of Mendelssohn, Brahms, and Bruch. He was the first to free Bach's solo violin works from contemporaneous arrangements; and over a period of forty years, as director of the newly founded Berlin Academy of Music, he led the string quartet that established the classic works of chamber music in the modern concert repertoire. Like that from Liszt, a direct line of descent leads from Joachim to yesterday's and today's great performers on the concert stage.

• Friedrich Blume, Classic and Romantic Music (New York: Norton, 1970). [ Return to text ]
• "Metastasio: The Forerunner of Gluck," op. cit., pp. 166ff. [ Return to text ]
• Quoted from the obituary published by William Ayrton, Director of the London Philharmonic Society, in the Gentleman's Magazine (May 1838). [ Return to text ]
• Neue-Mozart-Ausgabe, X/30/1 (Kassel and Leipzig: Bärenreiter, 1955). [ Return to text ]
• See Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization (New York: Norton, 1941), p. 776. Lang speaks of Schubert's D-Minor Quartet as the triumph of the reconciliation of Classicism with Romanticism. [ Return to text ]

An Age of Personal Memory

As the perspective of time diminishes and the historian becomes witness, the image of personages and events is apt to lose rather than gain in clarity. Figures and events that seem to "make history" may quickly fade; their significance is in danger of being blurred rather than being authoritatively defined. The heir apparent to the "New German" tradition of the era of Liszt and Wagner, Richard Strauss, wrote his last works as the new century that is now drawing to its close had reached the halfway mark. The past mingles with the present. It was with a shock of immediacy that the writer of these lines received, by curious circumstances, from the hand of the aged master what he had designated as his Artistic Testament, to be handed to the proper authorities in the turmoil of war. Yet the remarkable document, which now forms part of this collection, in the end gives witness only to the fact that the great symphonist and composer of dramatic works, while still in command of his extraordinary powers, began to outlive his own times. It deals with a future of opera that can no longer be realized. 1

Opera, like symphony and art song, had lived into the twentieth century, continuing to glorify the spirit of the nineteenth century despite all the radical reactions of a new age. There is no opera composer who has remained in more general demand than Giacomo Puccini, whose often drastic style is undeniably derived from nineteenth-century Realism ("verismo") and its frequently favored Exoticism.

It is characteristic of our unvarying indebtedness to the past as well that Vienna never ceased to be the musical metropolis of immediate memory. It was in Vienna that Hugo Wolf, who barely lived into the twentieth century, spent his tragically brief life. The only song composer who could fully measure up to Schubert's stature, he gave the Romantic lied its final form. Yet it is no longer the song composed for the private and intimate setting that lives in his oeuvre, but the song for the modern concert hall, the work in which the "accompaniment," designed for the modern concert piano, dominates and penetrates the poetic meaning to an extent unknown to earlier composers of the genre.

The powerful interpretation of Romantic lyricism proved to be more problematic in the Viennese symphony of the turn of the century. Gustav Mahler, the key figure in upholding the Bruckner tradition, introduced the song as an essential component into the symphony; in fact, he gave the designation "Symphonie" to his Lied von der Erde , a cycle of orchestral songs. It is the lyrical element that rules his symphonic work, yet its permeating influence stands in contrast to the grandiose gestures with which the symphonic genre overreached itself. Mahler's Eighth Symphony, the "Symphony of the Thousand," is the largest vocal work ever written.

Nevertheless, paired with such abandon to post-Wagnerian dimensions, there is prophetic strength in the composer's work, and in his frequent returns to smaller forms he anticipated the rise of a "Second Viennese School." In later years he was closely connected with the work of Alexander von Zemlinsky and Zemlinsky's student and brother-in-law, Arnold Schoenberg. A new spirit of chamber music entered the orchestral world; but the most pronounced reaction to post-Romanticism became a new theory that renounced the fin de siècle language of overwrought chromaticism.

Schoenberg introduced the concept of twelve-tone music, a melodic idiom that dismissed all harmonic implications; and, constructed over predetermined series or rows, all tones of the chromatic scale were now declared as equals in musical importance. It was a theory of "atonality" which swept away all past traditions and to which the gifted followers of the Schoenberg school, Alban Berg and Anton von Webern, and in later years even the aged Igor Stravinsky, succumbed.

This revolutionary step has to be seen against the background of the dawn of an agitated century, and through the disasters of two global wars the new musical language experienced both setbacks and expansion. Leading twentieth-century composers, including Paul Hindemith and a host of others, distanced themselves from it; under political suppression it temporarily all but vanished, only to reawaken to a late bloom especially in postwar America; and it eventually gave way to more radical developments that changed, technologically expanded, and veritably obliterated the nature of musical sound. It gave way to aleatory tendencies, and to such extremes as the American John Cage's 4'33'' --a gesture that seems to raise the question: What is music?

The immediacy of events--remembered or known to have been witnessed--makes it problematic for the observer to chart a course through the music of our century. Hand in hand with the twentieth-century world conflicts went a new international understanding and interpenetration. Ever since the days of Dvorák and Tchaikovsky, European composers and performers spent a significant part of their careers in America. In totally new dimensions, an international musical language took form, shaped by components from many cultures. The so-called domains of "popular" and "serious" music merged, while they continued to claim individual, growing and shrinking, territories. With George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue , American jazz had obtained legitimacy on the international concert stage; yet for a young generation at the end of the twentieth century, the word "concert" has taken on a new meaning of vast demonstrations, often out-of-doors, of musical entertainment entirely oblivious to the old "concert repertoire."

Nevertheless, demarcation lines remain. During the First World War, a German composer died whose work, while of recognized stature, has been genuinely appreciated only in Germany--Max Reger. His role in this respect is not unlike that of his American contemporary, Edward MacDowell, and a "school" of American composers began to form whose most widely acclaimed exponent became Charles Ives. Universally admired, his originality and keen sense of independence have recently become a matter of dispute, because evidence has come to light to suggest that he consciously altered dates of his compositions, so that they would have preceded such revolutionary works as Stravinsky's Sacre du Printemps. 2 If so, he cast a tragic shadow over works that in no way would be in need of such defense--doubly tragic, for the situation would reflect the agonies of twentieth-century innovations of so-called serious music. The composer's ideal of freedom from the European heritage was doubtless served in his novel creations; yet the popular works of his contemporary, Cole Porter, steeped in the folklore of the Western Hemisphere, were recognized as being free of any other derivation--without argument or lack of ease.

Ironically, it was at the hands of the European-born that some of the most important developments in modern American experimentalism grew. An outstanding case is that of Edgar Varèse, a Parisian who was trained by some of the leading French composers of the early twentieth century, after having studied mathematics and sciences at the École Polytechnique. Having come to America during the First World War, he inspired generations of American composers with his novelties in sound and rhythm, novelties which remain "somewhat abstruse to those of us who have not studied in polytechnical schools." 3

The impact of such influences, however, can be no more subject to question than their sincerity. At the same time, the traditional European influence has remained an integral part of the American musical scene. This is in part due to the fact that leading European composers, such as Schoenberg, Stravinsky, and Hindemith, who left Europe under the threat of the approaching Second World War, became the mentors of young Americans. A far-reaching didactic influence was exerted by Ernest Bloch, who had come to this country earlier. Yet the pedagogical role of the European composer in America varied. Bloch, a Swiss by birth, who with his widely recognized works served an independent ideal of establishing a new Jewish idiom in music, became, as director of the Cleveland Institute of Music and of the San Francisco Conservatory, the admired teacher of a host of American composers who were to pursue their own independent paths of success. His somewhat younger contemporary, Ernst Krenek, a Viennese who had gained an international reputation early in life, received an appointment at an American college that dismissed him when he introduced twelve-tone music in his theory curriculum. A highly respected, though more or less intentionally isolated career was to carry his life almost to the end of the century at whose beginning he was born.

It is with dismay that the chronicler makes mention of the American phase that concluded the life of Béla Bartók, in the opinion of many destined to become the century's most enduring composer. Bartók gave new meaning to creative impulse guided by a commitment to national heritage. What achieved world fame in the work of this modest and withdrawn artist was due to the dual attributes of scrupulous scholarship and a most original gift. He had recognized early that the wealth of indigenous Slavic music was in danger of being forever lost, and in painstaking exploration he set out to uncover its roots. He was neither a folklorist nor a curator. But in exacting field work that would put many a social scientist to shame, he rescued treasures whose preservation would represent a life work in itself. From the achievement of the researcher, however, departed that of the composer, and while the culture of the land formed a nurturing element in his music, the style of his works became entirely his own. His last compositions were written in the United States, but the ailing composer remained a stranger in the country, and he died in relative obscurity and poverty.

In curious contrast to the fate of Bartók stands that of Kurt Weill. Like Krenek born with the century, this highly gifted and successful composer wrote music that, in the best sense of the word, was popular. As a young man he came to America, leaving Germany at the time the National Socialists came into power, but he did not remain a mere immigrant. More readily than any of the other Europeans who had crossed the Atlantic, he embraced the art of American twentieth-century music and, with an innate sense for its dramatic potential, added his own impulse to it. His posthumous fame, which has markedly grown toward the end of the century, attests to a singularly gratifying career.

Yet the survey of twentieth-century developments in music directs our attention to the fact that, in very different manners, the age that has seen an unparalleled widening and integration of the international scene remains, despite all fertile exchange, beholden to national domains.

Sergei Prokofieff, the greatest among the older generation of Russian twentieth-century composers, wrote after an extended stay abroad, "A foreign atmosphere does not provide me with any foreign inspiration, I am a Russian." The spell of their country's fate looms over the career of this eminent composer as well as over that of his younger contemporary Dimitri Shostakovitch. Unlike Prokofieff, the latter identified his work clearly with Soviet ideals. In contrasting ways, their art was committed to their homeland and its sad lot in twentieth-century history. In contrasting ways, too, it was committed to the symphony and its Western heritage. Prokofieff approached the latter early in life with his famous "Classical Symphony," but his work was distributed over many genres, notably those of opera and ballet. In the oeuvre of Shostakovitch the symphony took on a central role, and especially in his later periods one senses the influence of Bruckner and Mahler.

What is totally absent from his work is the influence of French Impressionism, and this seems to suggest an enforced separation between the European East and West. Yet the palette of the twentieth century had grown too complex for categoric distinctions. While no twentieth-century composer seems more markedly French than Maurice Ravel, this foremost twentieth-century representative of the music of his country was drawn to the work of Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, and Stravinsky (with whom he shares a penchant for articulate clarity), and his famous Daphnis and Chloé ; was written for Sergei Diaghilev's Russian Ballet. Ravel was at heart an instrumental composer, inspired by the dance and apt to treat even the voice with instrumental precision. The style of his piano music, chamber music, and orchestral works may border on the brittle, but it never lacks a characteristic French grace.

The indebtedness to a national character comes to the fore even in the music of Arthur Honegger, although here we are dealing with composite nationality. This Swiss composer was born in France; he settled eventually in Paris, and a French orientation is predominant in his music. But it is the French orientation of an artist in whose home country French is one of several native languages. He received his early training in Zurich and returned to Switzerland throughout his life. The German-Swiss Alemanic heritage remained strongly present in his many-sided oeuvre. He is "one of the least dogmatic composers of the recent past, whose work is governed by synthesis rather than eclecticism." 4

Like Honegger, Germaine Tailleferre, the composer of fine orchestral scores that are remembered, belonged to the group Les Six , whose work she propagated throughout Europe. Its members, however, were connected in friendly association rather than a set program of French modern music.

More directly felt is the national influence of the most prominent twentieth-century composers in Spain and Latin America, Manuel de Falla and the slightly younger Heitor Villa-Lobos. De Falla raised Spanish music, after a long period of relative obscurity, to international importance again. A friend of Debussy and Ravel, he spent his formative years in Paris, yet a fundamental direction to his creative work was given by Felipe Pedrell, Spain's most eminent music historian whose research in the treasures of indigenous music is comparable to Bartók's. The folk music of Andalusia, the region where he was born, gave de Falla's work inspiration--the work of a highly sensitive and disciplined artist whose historic role it was to deliver Spanish music from its Romantic stigma of Exoticism. In contrast with de Falla's work stands that of the lesser known Federico Mompou whose predominantly pianistic work is not without reference to folkloristic themes. But the style of this Spanish composer was more clearly guided by his interest in the group Les Six and his devotion to Debussy.

The music of Villa-Lobos is not so much indebted to scholarly discovery as to technical brilliance which, however, is obviously founded in the composer's interest in Brazilian folk traditions. Trained as a violoncellist, he turned to the study of the guitar and popular improvisations; and while his life work embraced the symphonic and dramatic genres, chamber and piano music, his most successful works were written for his own instruments. In later years he explored the classical heritage of music, largely in his role as his country's most acknowledged musical educator, and the pieces involving an ensemble of eight cellos in his Bachianas Brasileiras are among his best known.

The tendency to draw fresh strength from the roots of folk music might be understood in a larger sense as a reaction against the over-refined and intellectualized twentieth-century musical language. Nevertheless, the incentives varied. In Poland, as in Russia, it was the regime that urged composers to concern themselves with the national heritage, and this pressure obscured many an artist's life. Yet it was only until about a decade after the end of the Second World War that Polish music was virtually closed off from the West; by 1956, international music festivals were being held in that country. This may have been the reason why the folk element in the music of Witold Lutosławski, the foremost Polish composer in the first half of the century, was in evidence only in those years. But it was doubtless also prompted by genuine interest. Lutosławski's Concerto for Orchestra , possibly his most eminent work, was inspired by folk music, yet as a matter of course he would treat folk motifs with atonality. Thus his Funeral Music honoring the memory of Bartók, whose work was venerated in Poland, is based on a twelve-tone row.

Poland produced another internationally recognized composer who, in fact, stands out as the most vigorous and the most successful of the waning twentieth century. Freed from the nineteenth-century and twentieth-century commitment to folk music, Krysztof Penderecki rose to universal fame overnight with his St. Luke Passion . In full command of all the means of a new age, he has embraced the major orchestral and choral forms and has proved himself a master of the music drama. Trained as a violinist, he developed a keen sense for all colors of sound and harmony. In view of the complexity of his work, his mastery of the a cappella medium is remarkable, and in such works as his Agnus Dei for eight-part unaccompanied chorus, or his Stabat Mater for three unaccompanied choirs, the listener is immediately under the spell of his sense of form and expression.

Trends of twentieth-century music have curiously overlapped in the work of some of its central figures. Whereas the "Second Viennese School," led by Schoenberg, was unequivocal in its adherence to serialism, its post-Romantic heritage nevertheless was undeniable. It merged in Alban Berg's music with an individual interpretation of atonality, and even the bold language of Wozzeck , the opera that established his reputation, is beholden to Romantic ideals. But the sensitive art of Anton von Webern, whose posthumous recognition is decisively indebted to the collector of these source documents, 5 severed its Romantic roots with a radically new approach to form. He became the celebrated "miniaturist" of the twentieth century, an aspect of his creative career that by no means exhausts a characterization of his strikingly original oeuvre. In Stravinsky's work, Russian heritage met with a pervading Western orientation of the composer who settled in Paris and later in the United States, with "Neo-Classicism," and eventually with the undeniable influence of the Schoenberg circle, especially Anton von Webern. By contrast, Hindemith, who had dominated the scene of German music in the second and third decades of the century, remained inherently German. Having made America his home at the height of his creative powers, he returned to Europe in later years to take a professorship in Zurich. His innate gift of instrumental performance and a wide artistic perspective always guided his course; he was a traditional guild musician as well as a historian and mystic.

There is a further aspect of Hindemith's work which was to become an important bequest to the later German and international scene, that of organizer for the promotion of modern music. Under his leadership the gathering place for young composers developed in Donaueschingen, center of a former German principality, which after the Second World War found a parallel in the Darmstadt music festivals.

The countries freed from Fascism reawakened with a certain shock to contemporary music, and the prototype of the composer-performer found greatly varying new challenges in experimentation. While Luigi Dallapiccola, the Italian, remained indebted to the brilliant dualistic career of Ferruccio Busoni and later to Schoenberg and Alban Berg, the most conspicuous figure among the young Germans, Karlheinz Stockhausen, extended serialism in ways that relied upon the whim of the performer as much as upon the precision provided by the means of the electronic age. His work had received primary impulse from latter-day French music, and his partner at Darmstadt became the composer-conductor Pierre Boulez, one of the foremost avant-gardists. But throughout the twentieth century the avant-garde wrestled with the problem of becoming the old guard. A telling epithet for the music of the declining century has become "Post-modernism," and composers such as the American George Rochberg renounced the advances of technology and looked to past ages for inspiration.

The latter orientation has led to especially stimulating results in the music of Elliott Carter, one of the most highly honored American composers of the century. New interpretations of polyphony and the concertante element are determining factors in his far-flung oeuvre, in which what one might call the counterpoint of rhythm and meter has assumed a major role; and the classical genre of the string quartet has occupied a key position in his work.

The old and the ever new developed the greatest contrasts in the world of twentieth-century performance. The autonomous composer who became his own conductor with the aid of the synthesizer worked next to such a widely versed musician as Boulez who, for a time, was the conductor of the New York Philharmonic. But the image of the orchestral sovereign such as the erstwhile conductor of the Boston Symphony, Karl Muck, whose imposing career lasted well into the twentieth century, lives on. The era of the Romantic performer stayed with us in such supreme figures as Andrés Segovia and Pablo Casals, and the legacy of the nineteenth-century pedagogue remained alive in the famous twentieth-century violinists who studied with Leopold Auer, himself a student of Joachim.

Personal recollection rather than the detached sifting process granted by the passage of time increasingly influences the sorting out of names from the twentieth century, and while the collectors' views continue to be guided by critical observation, their numbers become legion. Hans Moldenhauer, himself an active musician, retained through direct encounters of his long life an unusually vivid impression of the unfolding European and American musical scene. As a friend, he witnessed the essentially tragic career of Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco whose great gift suffered in emigration--the young avant-gardist was destined to become a respected conservative. Moldenhauer's teacher in young years was the prominent conductor Hans Rosbaud, the early interpreter of Schoenberg who in later years became the champion of contemporary music in Donaueschingen. In America it was Rudolph Ganz, President of the Chicago Musical College, under whose guidance Moldenhauer continued and completed his formal education. He was connected, often in close association, with such heterogeneous musical personalities as Karl Amadeus Hartmann, proponent of avant-garde performance and eminent symphonist; Paul A. Pisk, Schoenberg student, able composer, critic, and scholar; Eduard Steuermann, student of Busoni and Schoenberg, to whom many of the latter's premiere performances were entrusted; Nicolas Slonimsky, pianist, conductor and spirited lexicographer; Aurelio de la Vega, Cuban- American composer and musicographer; and Wolfgang Fraenkel, whom the escape from Germany had driven to new educational challenges in China before he settled in the United States.

The documents brought together in this collection obviously vary in importance, and the record of history they offer remains in constant need of revision. Will continuing currency or growing obscurity be accorded to figures of the recent past? To what extent will a new century rearrange the phalanx of the old? History has its own ways of being selective, and a name seemingly lost may acquire a new ring after a good deal more than a century. At any given age, critical evaluation can do no more than attempt to point the way. The only reliable guide into the future will always be the primary source.

• See "The Artistic Testament of Richard Strauss," The Musical Quarterly , vol. XXXVI, no. 1 (January 1950). [ Return to text ]
• See Donal Henahan, "Did Ives Fiddle with the Truth?" New York Times , February 21, 1988. [ Return to text ]
• Adolfo Salazar, Music in Our Time (New York, 1946), p. 318. [ Return to text ]
• Wiley Tappolet in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart . [ Return to text ]
• See Hans Moldenhauer, Anton von Webern; Perspective s and "A Webern Archive in America" (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1966). [ Return to text ]

Music History

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The following titles show the broad variety of theses completed by graduate students as part of the requirements for the master of music--music history concentration:

David A. Catchpole (2018) “Victor Kolar (1888-1957): A Czech Musician in Early Twentieth-Century America,” John Schmidt, supervisor.

Jorge Adan Torres (2016) “Ordo in Choro Servandus: Rules for the Choir in Colonial México,” John Schmidt, supervisor.

Robert Akers Zipp (2016) “Doom and Gloom: The Function of Music in Disney's Education for Death--the Making of a Nazi,” John Schmidt, supervisor

Kimberly Burton (2015) “Pavel Haas (1899-1944) and His  Four Songs on Chinese Poetry  (1944),” Nico Schüler, supervisor.

Claire Richardson (2015) “Stockhausen's Influence on Popular Music: an Overview and a Case Study on Björk's  Medúlla , ” Kevin Mooney, supervisor.

Joseph Vecchio (2014) “ ‘I was in a position to dismantle it’: Industrial Music Appropriations of William S. Burroughs,” Kevin Mooney, supervisor.

Joshua Zarbo (2014): “James Jamerson: from Jazz Bassist to Popular Music Icon,” Kevin Mooney, supervisor.

Kevin McClarney (2013) “A Cambridge Mass by Ralph Vaughan Williams: a History, Context, and Analysis," John C. Schmidt, supervisor.

Shao Ying Ho (2013) “A Historiography of Musical Historicism: the Case of Johannes Brahms,” Kevin Mooney, supervisor.

Laura Jones (2013) “Dan Fogelberg's  The Innocent Age : Poetics, Analysis, and Reception History,” Kevin Mooney, supervisor.

Sarah McNair (2012) “Women Jazz singers of the Big Band Era (1930-1945): an Annotated Bibliography and Research Guide,” Kevin Mooney, supervisor.

Lauren Lyman (2011) “‘Go with Yourself’: Evaluating the Creativity and Control of Ann and Nancy Wilson of Heart,” Kevin Mooney, supervisor.

F. Grace Burgess (2011) “ Susan Parkhurst (1836-1918): Biography and Complete Works List,” John C. Schmidt, supervisor.

Janina Vela (2010) “Is Ziggy Startdust Camp?: David Bowie as a Case Study in Music and Camp,” Kevin Mooney, supervisor.

Christopher Hanson (2009) “A Survey of Sources Related to Edmond Dédé: Nineteenth-Century New Orleans Violinist, Composer and Conductor,” Kevin Mooney, supervisor.

Amy Puett (2009) “The US-American Perception of Music from the GDR (German Democratic Republic) : Case Studies on Hanns Eisler (1898-1962), Paul Dessau (1894-1979), and Kurt Schwaen (1909-2007),” Nico Schüler, supervisor.

April Heather Stephens (2008) “Stephen Lias (Born 1966):  His Life, Works, and Analytical Discussions of  Songs of a Sourdough, ”  Nico Schüler, supervisor.

Tara L. Mayorga (2006) “On Music and Choreography of Three Ballets by Ludwig Minkus (1827-1917),”  John C. Schmidt, supervisor.

Win Alison Lee (2004) "Elements of Romanticism in Selected Piano Sonatas by Jan Ludislav Dussek: Historical and Theoretical Aspects,"  Nico Schüler, supervisor.

Gary P. Doby (2004) “Stylistic Characteristics of Selected Soviet Marches of World War II,”  John C. Schmidt, supervisor.

American Popular Music History Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Minstrel show

Phonograph technology, popular music.

Minstrel shows represented one of the shameful chapters in the American musical history in the mid and early nineteenth century. During the performances, both black and white performers wore blackface with a consequence of portraying racial discrimination and hatred. White’s: who imitated the black’s pigmentation by blackening their faces with grease paint or cork, threw sentiments of slavery and its rightful status quo to the African-Americans who were thought of being contented with slavery and apparently enjoyed subjectivity to white masters. The minstrel shows gained large popularity well into 1950s, since the northerners, mainly whites were cynical about the blacks.

They embraced songs that draw large audience interest and colorful comics associated with dark people. Though the show’s popularity dwindled from 1950s, as black men campaigned for political powers, its traces in modern day are still evident. Think of white rock musicians, white rappers. By taking after black musicians, do they express admiration to them or are they attempting to steal some African-American musical artistry? Some whites like African-American music in spite of disliking blacks reminiscent to minstrel shows audience.

Since initial recording of Mary had Little Lamb using the first viable phonograph, its impacts to the revolution of the music industry are deeply felt even today. The phonograph technology invention and patenting was done by Thomas Edison, which on commercialization enabled people to buy and replay music, which was then played at radio stations free of charge as repeatedly as they would wish.

Even though the technology may seem old, it has reappeared and enormously affected the modern music industry. The turntable technology is a replication of the phonograph Technology. With redesign and modifications such as replacement of wave forms tracing pins with optical readers, a twenty first century phonograph has been produced which is widely used by DJs. Vinyl recording systems and turntables are principally used for mixing different forms of electronically recorded music.

The instruments permit enormous latitude of various levels of physical manipulation of music in dance floors by DJs. In the case of hip-hops, as opposed to ordinary playbacks, the instruments allow records manipulation as part of the music. Furthermore, current USB turntables have been designed to provide compatibility with computers to permit direct transfer of sound to remotely connected computer. Consequently, the music industry is flexible than ever it has been.

Studying popular music has many difficulties. In the first place, there exists non-uniformity in the definitions of popular music by many musicology scholars. Secondly, the music is produced for audience with deferring social and cultural inclinations hence lacking specific reflection cultural identities. It is only possible to produce it in economic industries, which look at the popular music in terms of monetary value in which it is considered as a commodity. Furthermore, it is always subjected to the rules of capitalism: it must sell to as many people as possible at as little as possible and to as much as possible to yield optimal returns.

In comparison to jazz, folk or classical music, it is harder to study it since unlike them; it is not restricted to local audiences, which are small for oral and academic critical evaluation. To amicably study popular music, the musicology scholars have got to overcome the problems of disunity amongst the scholastic approaches to the subject, seize special ways of understanding music of multicultural settings which amounts to understanding ‘otherness’ in terms of cultural and musical behaviors. In addition, the problem of resolving on the desired target groups need to be addressed since such groups, more often than not, may have died out at the time of studying the popular music, which is normally dynamic and easily overtaken by events.

• Social Constructions and Hip Hop Music
• Gender Disparity: Women in Jazz
• Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope
• Like a Winding Street and Long Black Song
• The Significance of Early Cinema for Our Study of the History of the Cinema
• Music Styles and Their Differences
• Artists in Jazz Music and Dance Development
• History of Jamaican Music
• Hip-Hop Theory and Culture in the Discography
• Mystery Compositions in Church Music
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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A Guide to Writing a Music History Essay

For those of you who are majoring in music, at one point in time you will be asked to write about the history of music . It is a vast topic that can be difficult to put into words. Where do you begin? What do you focus on it?

All of these questions have stumped music students for generations. Today we will be looking into the more beautiful aspects of crafting a music history essay.

Select your topic

Before you begin to write anything, you first have to make up your mind on the subject of your essay. It is not a thesis statement but rather a general area of interest you will be covering. For instance, you could talk about the social effect of Woodstock during the 1960s.

While you haven’t concluded or hypothesized anything relating to the topic, you have narrowed your search down to a specific event within the history of music. It will infinitely make your job easier as you can discard all other irrelevant research and hone in on your subject matter.

The example above is just one of many. There are many primary topics you can explore online or within the syllabus of your school.

Understand your subject

Now that you have selected your topic, it’s time to hit the books. Do online and offline research and be sure to look at the bibliography section of being books that you are reading. It will potentially reveal new source material for you to consider and to expand your research efforts.

While digital platforms such as YouTube and similar site are readily available, you can also expand your research within the video format. There are plenty of TED talks and webinars on music history available within this sphere. You can also take a look at the source material these videos used to expand your research.

The trick in this phase is not to even think about writing but instead spend all of your time submerged within the subject matter. In this phase, you are conducting an information upload. Become an expert in the subject matter, fill your mind with all the little details you possibly can. Do this for a few days before moving onto the next phase.

Building your reference section

In the next phase you will have had enough time to digest the information at hand, and by now you should have identified your primary sources that you will be referring to throughout the essay. Before writing, build your first bibliography. Organize your thoughts around the source examples and help structure the delivery of your point of view.

In this phase, you will also be narrowing your scope a bit more. In our example of “Social Influence of music in the 1960s” you could now have narrowed it down to the top influential figures that shaped the culture around them.

As you can see, this approach to writing essays on music history allows you to organize your thoughts before actually writing a single word.

Furthermore, to help you narrow down the topic there are a few things you could consider.

• Genre, body of work, repertoire
• Musical technique
• Person or group

It is just for the sake of providing you with some ideas to consider when you are writing your music history essay.

Figuring out what to say

The next step is to look at the approach of your essay. Will you be merely reporting on an event that occurred or will you be providing a new unique perspective on the subject matter? Both of these styles are acceptable depending on what your preferred method is.

Regardless of what you choose, the point is to say something. You don’t just want to report on an event verbatim but instead provide a unique perspective on the event.

So now that you’ve established your approach, it’s time to formulate your argument.

Creating your argument

You’ve done enough research and now you know how you wish to express your idea. Now you will want to formulate your thesis statement. You need to create an argument that is appealing to the reader. The case should let the reader know why they should care and the significance of the work you are doing.

Once you have established your core argument, you can start working on the supporting arguments to drive your message home. These supporting arguments will make up the rest of the document.

Within the first paragraph, you will establish your central premise, and the rest of the document aims at providing your argument.

Concluding the right way

Many people make the mistake of restating the hypothesis. You have already done that, and there is no need to do it again. Instead, use this space to address the core questions you haven’t answered; why should a reader care?

Relate the content to a more significant relatable topic, perhaps a current event. Make it relevant to your reader and connect the dots on their behalf. A closure is essential to every experience, including an essay.

Finally, let your already-written essay sit for a few days before editing and proofreading it. It allows you to take a mental break from your work. It allows you to have a clear perspective on the job you’ve done.

Once you complete the essay, hand it in and feel proud you did an outstanding job.

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How to Write a Music Essay with Examples

Writing an essay about music encourages you to think about how music influences emotions and behavior. Did you know that certain types of music can alter brain activity, influence memory, or even change how we perceive time? This kind of analysis can reveal insights that go unnoticed in everyday listening.

In this article, our custom essay writing service will walk you through the process of crafting an exceptional music essay. We've curated a list of thought-provoking topics to spark your inspiration. And to give you a clearer picture of what a stellar music essay looks like, we'll share a sample music paper.

What is Music Essay

A music essay goes beyond just describing your favorite songs or artists. It can merge analysis with personal reflection, allowing you to connect abstract musical concepts to real-world effects.

What makes an essay on music unique is its ability to dissect not just the sound but the meaning and context behind it. For instance, when analyzing a piece of classical music, you might consider how its composition reflects the political climate of the time or how it challenges traditional structures in music theory. If you're writing about a modern genre like hip-hop, you might explore its roots in social movements and how it has evolved as a voice for marginalized communities.

Related : Check our special guide on what is research essay .

Special Features of Writing About Music

Writing about music doesn't require you to be an expert in this field. The key is to listen attentively, reflect on what you hear, and share your unique insights. Like any effective paper, a strong music essay requires a clear thesis, logical structure, well-supported arguments, and polished writing. What makes essays about music distinct is the blend of specific musical analysis with imaginative language that brings the music to life.

Technical vs. Everyday Language

While technical terms can be useful for describing intricate details, they aren't always necessary. If you're not deeply familiar with musical terminology or if you're writing for a broad audience, focus on describing the music in your own words. The aim is to communicate your ideas clearly and concisely without overwhelming your readers with complex jargon.

For example, in discussing Debussy's Clair de Lune , you might say: "The melody flows gently, like moonlight shimmering on a calm lake. It's serene, yet there's a quiet intensity beneath the surface." Notice how this description uses everyday language to convey the piece's emotional atmosphere.

Metaphors can be especially powerful in illustrating the emotional impact of music. For instance, you might describe a jazz improvisation as "a spontaneous conversation between old friends, full of unexpected turns and familiar comfort." This metaphor helps readers visualize the music and grasp its underlying mood.

Well-chosen metaphors not only enhance your argument but also make your writing more engaging. However, it's important to ensure your metaphors are precise and relevant to the music you're describing. Always connect them to specific musical elements so that your readers can clearly understand your interpretation.

Note : Remember to use our medical school personal statement school help for your unique academic adventures.

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How to Write a Music Essay in 7 Steps

Now, follow these 7 easy steps to understand how to write an essay about music. This guide will walk you through everything you need to know to create an engaging and insightful paper.

Meanwhile, you can always leave your ' write my essay ' request to our expert writers and get a flawless music essay on any topic!

1. Listen and Note Initial Impressions

The first step in writing a music essay is to listen to the piece multiple times. Pay close attention to the music, noting your immediate feelings and reactions. What emotions do you experience? Are there any specific moments that stand out?

Here are some questions to consider:

• How does the music make you feel? Are there moments of joy, sadness, anger, or peace?
• What instruments are being used? How do their sounds contribute to the overall atmosphere?
• Is there a strong melody or rhythm? How do these elements shape the piece?
• Are there any recurring motifs or themes? What do they symbolize?

These observations will help you identify the key elements of the music and develop a deeper understanding of its meaning.

2. Analyze the Musical Elements

Once you've noted your initial impressions, analyze the various musical elements that contribute to its overall effect. Instead of simply listing the elements, try to understand how these elements work together to create a cohesive composition. For example:

• Melody and Harmony: How does the melody interact with the harmony? Does the melody follow the harmonic progression, or does it create tension and resolution?
• Rhythm and Timbre: How does the rhythm influence the timbre of the instruments? Do certain instruments accentuate the rhythmic patterns or create a sense of counterpoint?
• Form and Structure: How is the piece organized? Are there any recurring sections or themes? How does the form contribute to the overall narrative or meaning of the music?

3. Organize Observations Clearly

Afterward, organize your observations in a way that makes your essay easy to follow. Start by grouping similar ideas together. For instance, if you notice patterns in rhythm, melody, or instrumentation, keep those observations together in your essay.

Next, decide on the order in which you want to present these points. A logical progression usually works best—move from broader observations to more specific details. This structure guides your reader smoothly through your analysis, making it easier for them to understand your perspective.

Lastly, make sure each section of your essay transitions well into the next. Use connecting phrases or sentences to link your ideas so the essay reads like a continuous narrative rather than a series of disjointed points.

4. Develop a Strong Thesis

To develop a strong thesis, start by reflecting on your observations and analysis. What is the key insight or argument you want to convey?

Your thesis should be specific and debatable, not just a statement of fact. For example, instead of saying, "The music uses interesting rhythms," try something more pointed like, "The unconventional rhythmic patterns in this composition challenge traditional notions of time signature, creating a unique auditory experience that reflects the artist's innovative approach."

Make sure your thesis is focused and manageable. Throughout your essay, continually refer back to this thesis to ensure your analysis remains relevant and cohesive.

5. Add Historical Context

To add historical context, start by researching the time period and cultural background in which the music was created. Consider factors like the social, political, and musical trends of the time.

For example, if you're writing about a jazz piece from the 1920s, mention the impact of the Jazz Age on the music's style and composition. How did historical events or cultural shifts influence the artist's work?

Incorporate this context into your essay to show how the music fits into a larger narrative. Explain how historical events or cultural movements shaped the music and how it, in turn, reflects or challenges those influences.

6. Link Music to Broader Themes

Connecting the music to broader themes helps to show its relevance and significance beyond its immediate context. To do this, identify the larger ideas or issues that the music touches on. For instance, if the piece reflects themes of rebellion or innovation, explain how these themes relate to broader cultural or societal movements.

Start by examining how the music aligns with or challenges prevailing trends, beliefs, or experiences of its time. For example, if a piece explores themes of personal struggle, link it to universal experiences or social issues, such as mental health or resilience.

Additionally, consider how the music fits into larger artistic or cultural movements. Does it reflect or influence trends in its genre, or does it contribute to a broader dialogue about art and society?

7. Synthesize Into a Cohesive Narrative

To synthesize your analysis into a cohesive narrative, revisit your main points and ensure they align with your thesis.

Structure your essay so that each section flows logically into the next. Begin with an introduction that outlines your thesis and the main points you will cover. Follow this with a body where you present your observations and analysis, organized by theme or aspect of the music. Ensure each paragraph transitions smoothly to the next, maintaining a clear connection to your central argument.

In your conclusion, summarize how your analysis supports your thesis and highlight the broader significance of the music. Reinforce the key themes and insights you've discussed, showing how they come together to form a complete picture.

Music Essay Topics

When choosing a topic for your essay, consider your interests and the specific piece of music you want to analyze. Here are 15 potential music topics to write about:

• What is the relationship between musical form and narrative structure in Beethoven's symphonies?
• Discuss how music contributes to the storytelling and emotional impact of films or television shows.
• How opera reflects socio-political issues of its time.
• The Beatles' Influence on Rock Music: A look at their lasting impact.
• How does the concept of "syncopation" contribute to the rhythmic complexity of jazz music?
• What makes a song a classic?
• Discuss the issues surrounding music copyright and the fair use of copyrighted material.
• How has music been used to represent and challenge national identity in post-colonial contexts?
• What is the role of nostalgia in our appreciation of music, and how does it differ across cultures?
• The use of classical music in 20th-century film scores
• How does Mozart's use of coloratura singing enhance the dramatic impact of his operatic characters?
• Examine the connections between music and literary works, such as novels, poetry, or plays.
• Trace the development of rock over time.
• How does music help us cope with grief and loss, and what are the psychological mechanisms involved?
• Speculate on the future of the music industry and the potential impact of emerging technologies.

Got your essay topic ready? Don't wait around—just click ' write my paper ' and let the experts handle it!

Music Essay Examples

Here are the samples that illustrate writing about music examples and bring our earlier tips to life. Crafted by our thesis writing service , they show you how to explore music, develop your arguments, and spotlight key details effectively.

The Bottom Line

Writing an essay about music can be both fun and rewarding. With so many topics to explore, just follow our guide to create a standout essay every time. Be adventurous with your topic, keep the writing process straightforward, and stick to academic standards. Use our music essay samples as a model to craft your own polished paper.

Remember, if you're feeling stuck or short on time, our expert writers are here to help. Simply visit our website, submit a ' write my research paper' request, and get a custom-written essay with just a click!

Need Help in Writing an Impressive Paper?

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Though music essay writing is not the hardest job on the planet, there are still some questions that often pop up. Now that you have a writing guide and a list of essay topics about music, it's time to address the remaining inquiries. Keep reading to find the answers to the frequently asked questions. 

What is Music Essay?

How to start an essay on music, how does music affect your mood essay.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

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Writing about Music: A Guide to Writing in A & I 24 . (n.d.). https://writingproject.fas.harvard.edu/files/hwp/files/ai_24_guide_to_print.pdf

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Music Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Band Members’ Attitudes Toward the Queer Community and Perception of Band as a Safe Space , Brian J. Panetta

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

A Novel Jazz Music Curriculum for Young Children: Results of A Pilot Study , Jazmin D. Ghent

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Where We Live and Learn to Know: An Oral History of the Rochelle High School Music Program , John Sargeant

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

School Music Administration During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trauma, Loss, Meaning, Change, and Innovation , Christopher Burns

Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Songwriting Self-Efficacy (SSES) with Secondary Music Students , Patrick K. Cooper

Measuring Parental Involvement as Parental Actions in Children’s Private Music Lessons in China , Cancan Cui

Instrumental Music Instruction and Executive Functions: A Cross-Sectional Study of Romanian Children (10-12 Years) , Adrian Sorin Iordache

Racial and Ethnic Difference in Music Performance Self-Efficacy Among Undergraduate Students , George W. Shannon Ii

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Vocal Health of Choral Singers from Kenya and the United States: Dysphonia and Vocal Fatigue in Relation to Musical Genres , Morgan Jolley Burburan

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Two Phenomena in Contemporary Music Education: Mental Toughness and the Law , Jason R. Sivill

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Making of a Nationally Recognized Band in a Small, Private Liberal Arts University: The Historical Significance of the Bobby L. Adams Years, 1987-2012 , Joshua David Blair

The Effects of a Self-Regulated Learning Music Practice Strategy Curriculum on Music Performance, Self-Regulation, Self-Efficacy, and Cognition , Kimberly N. Mieder

Music Software in the Compositional Learning Process , Daniel L. Nevels

Behavioral, Affective, and Cognitive Engagement of High School Music Students: Relation to Academic Achievement and Ensemble Performance Ratings , Joel E. Pagán

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Re-envisioning Music Teacher Education: A Comparison of Two Undergraduate Music Education Programs in the U.S. , Jonathan Ross Kladder

Music Ensemble Participation: Personality Traits and Music Experience , Tracy A. Torrance

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Influence of Musical Engagement on Symptoms of Tourette’s Disorder , William Christopher Brown

Motivation of Adult, Auditioned Community Choirs: Implications toward Lifelong Learning , David James Redman

The Effects of Technical and Imagery-based Instruction on Aspiring Performing Artists’ Acquisition of Learning Newly Composed Pieces and Improvisation and on Listeners’ Perceived Expressivity , José Valentino Ruiz-Resto

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Preference of Chinese Undergraduate Music Majors for Chinese Xi-Qu and Western Opera , Hong Chen

Secondary Band Participation and Executive Function , Dakeyan Cha' Dre' Graham

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

An Examination of Cooperating Teachers' Observations of Their Student Teachers in the Areas of Personal, Teaching, and Musical Skills in the Elementary Classroom , Mark Remsen Cole

I Did That Wrong and It Sounded Good: An Ethnographic Study of Vernacular Music Making in Higher Education , Victor Ezquerra

Creativity-Based Music Learning: Modeling the Process and Learning Outcomes in a Massive Open Online Course , Nicholas Michael Stefanic

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

The Relationship between Death Depression and Death Anxiety among Cancer Patients in Saudi Arabia , Doaa A. Almostadi

World Percussion Approaches in Collegiate Percussion Programs: A Mixed-methods Study , Patrick Michael Hernly

The Impact of Arranging Music for the Large Ensemble on the Teacher: A Phenomenological Exploration , James Teodor Lindroth

Listening in Action: Students' Mobile Music Experiences in the Digital Age , Rebecca Marie Rinsema

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

The Performance Production Process of an Outstanding High School Choir , Kathy K. Rolsten

Transitioning from Student to Teacher in the Master-Apprentice Model of Piano Pedagogy: An Exploratory Study of Challenges, Solutions, Resources, Reflections, and Suggestions for the Future , Melissa Maccarelli Slawsky

Self-Efficacy in Music Performance: Measuring the Sources Among Secondary School Music Students , Michael S. Zelenak

Theses/Dissertations from 2008 2008

Analytical Perspectives of Thematic Unity: Applications of Reductive Analysis to Selected Fugues by J.S. Bach and G.F. Handel , Adam C. Perciballi

Theses/Dissertations from 2007 2007

Expanded Tonality: The Treatment of Upper and Lower Leading Tones As Evidenced in Sonata "Undine,” IV by Carl Reinecke , Joshua Blizzard

Theses/Dissertations from 2005 2005

The Compositional Style of Francesco Geminiani: a Reflection of Theory and Practice in His Music and Guida Armonica Treatise , Valerie R. Weber

Theses/Dissertations from 2004 2004

An Application of the Grundgestalt Concept to the First and Second Sonatas for Clarinet and Piano, Op. 120, No. 1 & No. 2, by Johannes Brahms , Devon Burts

The French Art Song Style in Selected Songs by Charles Ives , Christy Jo Talbott

Theses/Dissertations from 2003 2003

Music Programs that Engage Our Communities: Making a Stronger Connection , La Gretta Snowden

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Music Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Demystifying the Choral Music of Herbert Howells: A Pedagogical Approach via Selected Works , Michael Ballard

Exploring the Intersections Between Gospel Music and European Choral Traditions, Through Selected Works of Isaac Cates, Diane L. White-Clayton, and Raymond Wise , Bryon Keith Black II

Kim Kook Jin’s the Pieces of Korean Melody for Piano: An Analysis of Pedagogical Elements and Korean Folk Traditions , Seoyeon Carroll

Serial Minimalism, Feminism, and Queer Identity in Selected Piano Works of Ann Southam , Elizabeth Churchya

Fourth-Grade Music Students' Perceptions of Music Improvisation: An Ethnographic Case Study , Ashley Elizabeth Cobb

A Conductor’s Guide to When We No Longer Touch: the World’s First Aids Requiem , Kevin Crowe

Native American Nationalism: Chickasaw Identity and the Music of Jerod Impichchaachaaha' Tate , Austin Davis

A New Approach to Oboe Gouging Machines Using Router Tips and Traction Wheels , Pedro Falcon

A Discussion of the Tubman Arias from the Opera Harriet Tubman: When I Crossed That Line to Freedom , Mahari Allene Marie Freeman

Melding of Traditions: African American Cultural and Learned Style Topics in the Music of Roger Dickerson , Kenneth Green II

Developing a Curriculum for an Online Group Piano in the Philippines: An Ideological, Historical, and Practical Approach , Lady Abigail Imperio

Echoes of Heritage: Documenting Contemporary Works from Singapore Featuring the Cello , Eunice Koh

Becoming Musical: Towards a Typology of Non-musical Sounds in Recorded Popular Music , Jacob David McCooey

Bass-Triadic Cadence Formulae in Melchior Neusidler’s Original Compositions from Il Primo (-Secondo) Intabolatura Di Liuto , Christopher McDonald

Selected Commissioned Works for Solo Piano by National Artists for Music in the Philippines' National Competitions for Young Artists (NAMCYA) in the Philippines , Almond See Ponge

Second-Grade Students’ Lived Experiences During Formal and Informal Music Learning Activities , Celina Liana Reed

Kodály Learning: a Qualitative Case Study Based on the Use of a Blended Curriculum Using the Principles of Zoltán Kodály in Beginning Piano Study , Megan Elizabeth Rich

Reflections of Chinese Opera in Contemporary Chinese Piano Repertoire: A Cutural, Analytical, and Pedagogical Guide , Mengyu Song

Sonic Data: Sonification in James Stephenson’s There Are No Words and David Kirkland Garner’s Red Hot Sun Turning Over , Nathan Lee Tucker

A Survey of Improvisation Activities in Average-Age Beginning Piano Method Series and a Sample Two-Year Improvisation Curriculum , Qiwen Wan

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Comprehensive Method for Clarinet Latin American Music Heritage Case Study – Venezuela , Carmen Teresa Borregales

Contemporary Vocal Pedagogy in the Choral Ensemble Rehearsal: A Guide for Secondary Educators , Luke Lee Browder

A Pedagogical and Analytical Study of the Carnatic Saxophone Performance Tradition of Kadri Gopalnath , Caleb James Carpenter

Symphony No. V: Elements (Julie Giroux, 2018); An Overview Of Programmatic Elements and Performance Devices , Zackery Augustus Deininger

A Conductor’s Guide to Lucrecia Roces Kasilag’s Misang Pilipino (1965) , Denise Ysabel Ellis

The Theory of Intonation: Boris Asafiev and the Russian Piano School Tradition , Polina Golubkova

A Comparative Analysis of Samuel Barber’s Third Essay for Orchestra, Op. 47 , David Abrams Gordon

Injury Prevention Exercise Guidelines for Flutists , Ziqing Guan

Luis Abraham Delgadillo: A Rediscovery of His Piano Music , Fanarelia Auxiliadora Guerrero López

A Holistic Approach for Neurodivergent Learners In the High School Choral Classroom , Peter Allen Haley

Creative Insights on the Commissioning, Analysis, and Performance of Four New Works for Saxophone , Andrew Joseph Hutchens

An Analysis of Selected Vocal Works by George Walker , Ginger Sharnell Jones-Robinson

Bohuslav Martinů’s Eight Preludes For Piano H. 181: Style Analysis and Pedagogical Approaches In Piano Performance , Jinkyung Kim

An Investigative Analysis of Fernando Sor’s Introduction and Variations on “O Cara Armonia” From Mozart’s The Magic Flute , Luke James Nolan

The Film Score Music of John Williams: A Guide to Selected Works for the Principal Percussionist , Andrew Charles Crozier Patzig

Appalachian Dreams: Traditional Folk Songs in Concert Literature for Classical Guitar , Jackson Douglas Roberson

“Everything Old Is New Again”: The Rise of Interpolation in Popular Music , Grayson M. Saylor

How Do They Do It: A Narrative of Disabled Public School Instrumental Ensemble Conductors and Their Positive Working Relationships With Their Administrators , Lia Alexandria Patterson Snead

The Impact of Incorporating Self-Myofascial Release Into Voice Lessons: A Six-Week Study , Benjamin Patrick Stogner

The Post-Tonal Evolution of David Diamond: A Theoretic-Analytical Perspective , William John Ton

Fourth-Grade and Fifth-Grade Cover-Band Classes: An Action-Research Project Inspired By Popular Music Education and Music Learning Theory , Julia Turner

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Social Music Interactions and Vocal Music Improvisations in a Serve and Return Music Community , Kathleen Kaye Arrasmith

Comfort Food for the Ears: Exploring Nostalgic Trends in Popular Music of the Twenty-First Century , April K. Balay

A Performance Guide to “Four Piano Pieces, Opus 1” By Evgeny Kissin , Andrew Choi

Timeless Light: A Singer’s Compendium of Art Songs for Tenor By Black Composers , Johnnie J. Felder

Negotiating Nationalism: Camille Saint-Saëns, Neoclassicism, and the Early Music Renaissance in France , Joshua Arin Harton

An Analysis of the Compositional Technique and Structures Of Nikolai Kapustin’s Piano Sonata No. 6, Opus 62 , Hyun Jung Im

Adapting North American Fiddle Bow Technique to the Double Bass , Spencer Jensen

Approaches to Teaching Music Counting to Piano Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder , Sunghun Kim

Redefining Ornamentation as Formal Functions in 21 st -Century Popular Music , Matthew Kolar

Lost in Translation: The Largely Unknown Life and Contributions of Johann Joachim Quantz , Kayla Ann Low

Broadway Quodlibets as Hybrid Music , Spencer Ann Martin

Redistributing Cultural Capital: Graduate Programs In Wind Conducting at Historically Black Universities; Toward an Alternate Future , Jamaal William Nicholas

Analysis of Selected Pieces Influenced by Taiwanese Aboriginal Music for Solo Violin and String Quartet , Isabel Hsin-Yi Ong

Margaret Rowell: Pedagogical Approach and Teaching Style , Robert-Christian Sanchez

A Performance Guide to Hyo-Geun Kim’s Art Pop for Korean Art Songs , Taeyoung Seon

Examining Sixth-Grade Students’ Music Agency Through Rhythm Composition , Robert Zagaroli Spearman

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Pedagogical Solo Piano Nocturnes: A Progressive Leveling With Annotations on Stylistic, Technical, and Musical Challenges and Benefits , Michaela Anne Boros

Disparities in Programming African American Solo Vocal Music On College Campuses Across the United States , Ramelle Brooks

Quantitative Data Collection on the Fundamental Components Of Saxophone Tone Production , Matthew Troy Castner

Music as Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) Therapy: An Exploratory Literature Review , Amy Arlene Clary

The Music Festival: A Case Study on the Establishment, Development, and Long-Term Success of an Instrumental Music Education Event From a Logistical Perspective , Dakota Corbliss

An Orchestral Conductor’s Guide to the James/Daehler Edition Of The Hinrichs and Winkler Compilation Score to the 1925 Silent Film The Phantom of the Opera , Hayden Richard Denesha

An Annotated Bibliography of Flute Repertoire by Iranian Female Composers , Roya Farzaneh

Composers and Publishers of Parlor Songs and Spirituals from Civil War Richmond: 1861 – 1867 , Michael Gray

A Comparison of Approaches to Pianoforte Technique in the Treatises of Lhevinne, Leimer, and Neuhaus , Louis S. Hehman

The History and Influence of Tim Zimmerman and The King’s Brass , Eric Tyler Henson

A Stylistic Analysis of Edvard Grieg’s Slåtter , Norwegian Peasant Dances, Op. 72 , Zhiyuan He

Transcribing Baroque Lute to Marimba: Viability, Techniques, and Pedagogical Possibilities , Cory James High

One Elementary General Music Teacher’s Uses of and Experiences With Gordon’s Music Learning Theory: A Case Study , Allison Elizabeth Johnson

Cancion Y Danza, Fetes Lointaines, Paisajes By Federico Mompou: A Stylistic Analysis , Qiaoni Liu

The Apprenticeship Structure and the Applied Pedagogical Methods Of the Holy Roman Empire Imperial Trumpeters’ Guild During The 17 th and 18 th Centuries , Noa Miller

Survey of Four North American and Malaysian Theory Methods for Young Pianists , Wen Bin Ong

A Conductor’s Guide to J. N. Hummel’s Forgotten Oratorio: Der Durchzug Durchs Rote Meer , Rebecca J. Ostermann

A Practical Approach for the Applied Voice Instructor Utilizing Limited Piano Skills in the Studio Setting , Lee Whittington Ousley

Adele Aus Der Ohe: Pioneering Through Recital Programming At Carnegie Hall, 1895 , Grace Shepard

Ten Years of Japanese Piano Pedagogy (2009-2018) Through a Survey of Educational Resources , Natsumi Takai

A Comparative Analysis of Selected Works by Chen Qigang: Wu Xing, L’éLoignement, and Luan Tan , Isaac Ormaza Vera

A Pedagogical Analysis of Henglu Yao’s Microkosmos From Chinese Nationalities , Yanting Wang

A Stylistic and Pedagogical Analysis of Select Classical Pieces In Alicia’s Piano Books by Ananda Sukarlan , Karen Kai Yuan Yong

Co-Constructive Music Improvisers: An Ethnographic Case Study , Emma Elizabeth Young

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Performance History of Mahler’s Das Lied Von Der Erde Focusing on Bruno Walter and Leonard Bernstein , Nisan Ak

The Mathematics of Rubato: Analyzing Expressivetiming in Sergei Rachmaninoff’s Performances of Hisown Music , Meilun An

Electronic Learning: An Educator’s Guide to Navigating Online Learning in a Collegiate Horn Studio , Michelle Beck

The Clarinet Music of Dr. Austin Jaquith: A Performance Guide , Zachary Aaron Bond

Young Children’s Behaviors During Favorite-Music Repertoire And Other-Music Repertoire , Vanessa Caswell

Five Pieces for Piano by Isang Yun and Piano Etude No.1 by Unsuk Chin: An Analysis , Inhye Cho

Natural Reed Enhancement: Establishing the First Universal Reed Break-In Process Through Hydro-Stabilization , Steven Isaac Christ

Performance Edition of Franz Simandl’s 30 Etudes for the String Bass With Critical Commentary , Austin Gaboriau

A Legacy Preserved: A Comparison of the Careers and Recordings of Stanley Drucker and Karl Leister , Peter M. Geldrich

An Index of Choral Music Performed During the National Conventions of the American Choral Directors Association (1991-2019) , Jonathan Randall Hall

A Stylistic Analysis of Reinhold Glière’s 25 Preludes for Piano, Op. 30 , Sunjoo Lee

The Singing Voice Specialist: An Essential Bridge Between Two Worlds , Rebecca Holbrook Loar

A Pedagogical Analysis of DvořáK’s Poetic Tone Pictures, Op. 85 , Nathan MacAvoy

Focal Dystonia Causes and Treatments: A Guide for Pianists , Juan Nicolás Morales Espitia

Cultivating Socially Just Concert Programming Perspectives through Preservice Music Teachers' Band Experiences: A Multiple Case Study , Christian Matthew Noon

The Clarinet Repertoire of Puerto Rico: An Annotated Bibliography of Compositions Written for the Clarinet During the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries , María Ivelisse Ortiz-Laboy

A Stylistic Analysis of Alexander Tcherepnin's Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 78, With an Emphasis on Eurasian Influences , Qin Ouyang

Time’s Up: How Opera Is Facing Its Own Me Too Reckoning , Craig Price

A Trumpet Player’s Performance Guide of Three Selected Works for Trumpet, Cello, and Piano , Justin Wayne Robinson

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Independent Study Frequently Asked Questions

For the ARCT Exam Only option, the Independent Study Essay is researched and planned in advance, but must be written at the time of the examination without consulting notes. For the ARCT Online Course with Exam option, the Independent Study is completed by submitting three assignments:

• When submitting your selected essay topic and question, you must also submit the composers/works you have selected, based on the specific requirements of your topic (Musical Theater, Jazz, Technology in Music)
• Once your topic is submitted, a member of the College of Examiners will provide you with feedback and a mark (within 15 business days*).  To address the feedback received, you may resubmit the essay topic up to two more times.
• Having thoroughly researched your topic, the next step is to submit your essay outline and list of references
• Once your outline and list of references is submitted, a member of the College of Examiners will review your materials and provide you with feedback and a mark (within 15 business days*). To address the feedback received, you may resubmit the outline and list of references up to two more times.
• The final step is to write and submit the essay, based on your approved outline. Be sure to cite references as appropriate.
• A member of the College of Examiners will review and mark the essay (within 15 business days*). The essay can only be submitted once.

Independent Study FAQ

• When should I start working on my Independent Study? It is recommended that you start working on your research after completing several units of the Modern era section of the ARCT History course. Music in this period encompasses many diverse stylistic currents, and you should have the opportunity to experience and explore some of these currents, including Impressionism, Expressionism, serialism, neo-Classicism, and minimalism, before moving to your independent study.  
• How much time should I plan for completing it? Given the three-step submission process, the 15 business day turn-around, and the possibility to take advantage of resubmissions when applicable for a higher grade, please plan for the completion process to take up to 3 months (note that you have one year from the date of purchase  to complete the course). We recommended starting when you have completed several units of the Modern Era, and to continue your study of the Modern Era while awaiting your feedback and results.  
• Can I complete the exam before the independent study? The independent study unit must be completed before the complete exam can be attempted.  The ARCT History Independent Study Unit is structured so that students receive credit for following the process as outlined: First, selecting a topic, then researching and creating an outline, and finally writing the essay.  The 15-day period between each submission is to allow for assessment of each stage.  The requirement that students complete the Independent Study Unit in advance of the Examination is intended to ensure that students complete this essential component of the ARCT History course.
• Assignment 1: there is no specific word count as you are submitting your essay topic and question as well as the composers/works you have selected, based on the specific requirements of your topic (Musical Theater, Jazz, Technology in Music)
• Assignment 2: there is no specific word count as you are submitting an outline and a list of references. The outline should be written using point form, and should provide a complete overview of everything you will be covering in your essay.
• Assignment 3: The essay should be approximately 1200–2,000 words in length.
• How to re-submit? Does my assignment get re-marked? Once your assignment has been graded, simply navigate back to the assignment submission page which will offer the possibility to upload a new submission (provided you have submissions remaining.)  
• Should Assignment 2 be in bullet point or an essay draft? Assignment 2 should be submitted in bullet point form. It is an outline which will guide the writing of your essay.  The bullet points should outline all the ideas you will be addressing in your complete essay, (Assignment 3).  
• What are the references listed in Assignment 2 and 3? As you do your research, it is important to keep track of the sources you have consulted, in case you ever wish to go back to check details or quote a source directly. The complete list of resources you consulted during your research must be submitted as part of Assignments 2 and 3.  
• What happens if I submitted the wrong assignment? Please email [email protected] with your first and last name as well as your RCM number (starts with 2 numbers and a letter).  

Home — Essay Samples — Entertainment — Music Industry — Music: Evolution And Impact On The World Today

Music: Evolution and Impact on The World Today

• Categories: Art History Music Industry Song

About this sample

Words: 1139 |

Published: Mar 18, 2021

Words: 1139 | Pages: 3 | 6 min read

Works Cited:

• Baker, S. (2018). The Power of Kindness: Why Compassion Is Essential in Everyday Life. Chronicle Books.
• Curry, O., Rowland, L., Van Lissa, C. J., Zlotowitz, S., McAlaney, J., & Whitehouse, H. (2018). Happy to help? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of performing acts of kindness on the well-being of the actor. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 76, 320-329.
• Gilbert, D. (2009). Stumbling on happiness. Vintage.
• Grant, A. M. (2014). Give and take: Why helping others drives our success. Penguin Books.
• McKeown, G., & Hopkins, N. (2014). Emotion, kindness and compassion: The nature and significance of promoting positive affect in relationship education. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 31(2), 200-215.
• Nelson, J. (2020). The Science of Kindness: Building a Better World. Beacon Press.
• Post, S. G. (2018). The Hidden Gifts of Helping: How the Power of Giving, Compassion, and Hope Can Get Us Through Hard Times. Jossey-Bass.
• Rind, B., & Bordia, P. (1995). Effect of server introduction on restaurant tipping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25(1), 37-57.
• Sprenger, S. J. (2008). The power of kindness: Why empathetic kids do better in school and life. Sourcebooks.
• Wiseman, R. (2012). Rip it up: The radically new approach to changing your life. Harper Collins.

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Essay on Music for Students and Children

500+ words essay on music.

Music is a vital part of different moments of human life. It spreads happiness and joy in a person’s life. Music is the soul of life and gives immense peace to us. In the words of William Shakespeare, “If music is the food of love, play on, Give me excess of it; that surfeiting, The appetite may sicken, and so die.” Thus, Music helps us in connecting with our souls or real self.

What is Music?

Music is a pleasant sound which is a combination of melodies and harmony and which soothes you. Music may also refer to the art of composing such pleasant sounds with the help of the various musical instruments. A person who knows music is a Musician.

The music consists of Sargam, Ragas, Taals, etc. Music is not only what is composed of men but also which exists in nature. Have you ever heard the sound of a waterfall or a flowing river ? Could you hear music there? Thus, everything in harmony has music. Here, I would like to quote a line by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, one of the greatest musicians, “The music is not in the notes, but in the silence between.”

Importance of Music:

Music has great qualities of healing a person emotionally and mentally. Music is a form of meditation. While composing or listening music ones tends to forget all his worries, sorrows and pains. But, in order to appreciate good music, we need to cultivate our musical taste. It can be cited that in the Dwapar Yug, the Gopis would get mesmerized with the music that flowed from Lord Krishna’s flute. They would surrender themselves to Him. Also, the research has proved that the plants which hear the Music grow at a faster rate in comparison to the others.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Magical Powers of Music:

It has the power to cure diseases such as anxiety, depression, insomnia, etc. The power of Music can be testified by the legends about Tansen of his bringing the rains by singing Raag Megh Malhar and lighting lamps by Raga Deepak. It also helps in improving the concentration and is thus of great help to the students.

Conclusion:

Music is the essence of life. Everything that has rhythm has music. Our breathing also has a rhythm. Thus, we can say that there is music in every human being or a living creature. Music has the ability to convey all sorts of emotions to people. Music is also a very powerful means to connect with God. We can conclude that Music is the purest form of worship of God and to connect with our soul.

FAQs on Essay on Music:

Q.1. Why is Music known as the Universal Language?

Ans.1. Music is known as the Universal language because it knows no boundaries. It flows freely beyond the barriers of language, religion, country, etc. Anybody can enjoy music irrespective of his age.

Q.2. What are the various styles of Music in India?

Ans.2. India is a country of diversities. Thus, it has numerous styles of music. Some of them are Classical, Pop, Ghazals, Bhajans, Carnatic, Folk, Khyal, Thumri, Qawwali, Bhangra, Drupad, Dadra, Dhamar, Bandish, Baithak Gana, Sufi, Indo Jazz, Odissi, Tarana, Sugama Sangeet, Bhavageet, etc.

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